Shambhala, which is a Sanskrit word meaning “place of peace” or “place of silence”, is a mythical paradise spoken of in ancient Tibetan Buddhist and Hindu traditions, including the Kalachakra Tantra and the ancient Zhangzhung texts of western Tibet & Hindu texts such as the Vishnu Purana (4.24) mention the village Shambhala as the birthplace of Kalki, the final incarnation of Vishnu who will usher in a new Golden Age (Satya Yuga).

According to legend, it is a land where only the pure of heart can live, a place where love and wisdom reigns and where people are immune to suffering, want or old age.

Shambhala is said to be the land of a thousand names. It has been called the Forbidden Land, the Land of White Waters, Land of Radiant Spirits, Land of Living Fire, Land of the Living Gods and Land of Wonders. The Hindus call it Aryavartha (‘The Land of the Worthy Ones); the Chinese know it as Hsi Tien, the Western Paradise of Hsi Wang Mu; and to the Russian Old Believers, it is known as Belovoyde. But throughout Asia, it is best known by its Sanskrit name, Shambhala, Shamballa, or Shangri-la.

Call it what you will, but let it be described as the home for immortals; a place where the Will of God is known; a celestial kingdom that holds our very destiny.

According to the Kalachakra Tantra Prophecy, a line of enlightened kings guard the highest wisdoms for the time when all spiritual values in the outside world are lost in wars and destruction.

At that time, a great king will come out of the Shambhala kingdom to defeat the forces of evil and establish the Golden Age.

The prophecy of Shambhala gives us a hint of the coming Golden Age. There will be 32 kings, each reigning for a 100 years. As their reigns pass conditions, of the world will deteriorate. Wars will break out in the pursuant of power.

Materialism will overcome spiritualism and spread over the world. Then the ‘barbarians’ who follow this ideology of power and materialism are united under one evil king, assuming there is nothing left to conquer. When this time comes, the mists will then lift to reveal the icy mountains of Shambhala.

Seeing the promised lands of Shambhala, the barbarians will then attack Shambhala with a huge army equipped with terrible weapons.

The 32nd king of Shambhala, Rudra Cakrin, ‘The Wrathful One with the Wheel’ will rise from his throne and lead a mighty host against the invaders destroying the army of barbarians.

After the battle has been won, the rule of Shambhala will cover the world, bringing in the greatest Age of all times. Food will grow without work, there will be no disease or poverty, hatred and jealousies will be replaced with love and the great saints and sages of the past will return to life to teach true wisdom of the Ages.

Tibetan religious texts tell us that the technology of Shambhala is supposed to be highly advanced; the palace contains special skylights made of lenses which serve as high-powered telescopes to study extraterrestrial life, and for hundreds of years Shambhala’s inhabitants have been using aircraft and cars that shuttle through a network of underground tunnels.

On the way to enlightenment, Shambhalans acquire such powers as clairvoyance, the ability to move at great speeds, and the ability to materialize and disappear at will.

As with many concepts in the Kalachakra, the idea of Shambhala is said to have outer, inner, and alternative meanings. The outer meaning understands Shambhala to exist as a physical place, although only individuals with the appropriate karma can reach it and experience it as such. The inner and alternative meanings refer to more subtle understandings of what Shambhala represents in terms of one’s own body and mind (inner), and during meditative practice (alternative).

These two types of symbolic explanations are generally passed on orally from teacher to student.

Over many centuries, numerous explorers and seekers of spiritual wisdom have embarked on expeditions and quests in search of the mythical paradise of Shambhala, and while many have claimed to have been there, no one has yet provided any evidence of its existence or been able to pinpoint its physical location on a map, however most references place Shambhala in the mountainous regions of Eurasia.
Ancient Zhang Zhung texts identify Shambhala with the Sutlej Valley in Punjab or Himachal Pradesh, India. Mongolians identify Shambhala with certain valleys of southern Siberia.

In Altai folklore, Mount Belukha is believed to be the gateway to Shambhala. Modern Buddhist scholars seem to conclude that Shambhala is located in the higher reaches of the Himalayas in what is now called the Dhauladhar Mountains around Mcleodganj. Some legends say that the entrance to Shambhala is hidden inside a remote, abandoned monastery in Tibet, and guarded by beings known as the Shambhala Guardians.

For some, the fact that Shambhala has never been found has a very simple explanation – many believe that Shambhala lies on the very edge of physical reality, as a bridge connecting this world to one beyond it.

Hitler’s Attempts to Find Shambala

Hitler also made attempts to locate and enter the gates of Shambhala… The idea of Shambhala and its occult knowledge was an obsession to him. The roots of his occult desires can be traced far back into his youth where he studied the occult and yoga in Vienna. The young Hitler received initiation into the American Indian Peyote Cult.

After he was introduced to The Secret Doctrine, he then turned his attention more to Theosophy. Later he joined the occult group in Germany called Ultima Thule, out of which the Nazi Party was born.

Upon assuming power, Hitler established the ministry of Ancestral Memories, headed by the Chairman of the Sanskrit Department at Munich University.

Through this connection with Sanskrit studies, the Nazis adopted the swastika, an ancient symbol of good luck and well being. Although many believe that Hitler designed this emblem it is a fact that the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain worlds had honored this symbol for thousands of years prior to the Nazi movement.

With the help of the explorer Sven Hedlin, Hitler sent several expeditions to Tibet. The Nazis claimed that although Shambhala was inaccessible to them, they also made contact and gained help from the mystical kingdom of Agartha. It was reported that the leaders held a ceremony led by a man with the keys to Argatha.

Source: ancient-origins.net

Īśāvāsya (ईशावास्य) is the only one among the Principal Upaniṣads which is part of a Samhita. It is the end part of Śukḻa Yajurveda (Kāṇva recension), consisting of 18 verses in poetry. Being part of a Samhita is a testimony for the authenticity and ancientness of the Upaniṣad. While taking up the study of this very small Upaniṣad, we confine our analytical endeavour to the limits that we have already set, in the case of our previous studies.

This Upaniṣad derives its name from the opening word of its first verse. Īśāvāsya means abode of the Ruler; Īśa is Ruler and āvāsya is abode. The Upaniṣad describes who this Ruler is and how man should yearn to attain to the ultimate principle of this Ruler.

Let us now look at the first verse. It reads thus:

ईशावास्यमिदं सर्वं यत् किंच जगत्यां जगत्
तेन त्यक्तेन भुञ्जीथा मा गृधः कस्यस्विद् धनम् || 1 ||

īśāvāsyamidaṃ sarvaṃ yat kiṃca jagatyāṃ jagat
tena tyaktena bhuñjīthā mā gṛdhaḥ kasyasvid dhanam (1)

Meaning: ‘All that is here in this ever-changing world constitutes the abode of the Ruler (He is the in-dweller in everything); therefore, when you take anything here to utilize for your benefit, do it with a sense of renunciation (rather than arrogation); you should not covet others’ means of living (dhana is prey, the thing on which one feeds on)’.

In other words, the world is subject to continuous change; it has a Ruler. The whole world is his abode; that is, He occupies everything here. Nobody has, therefore, any possession right over anything here, but only enjoyment right. So, don’t attempt to arrogate anything to yourself. Further, when you take something for your enjoyment, renunciation must be the guiding principle.

How should we understand these instructions? First of all, please take notice of the mention about ever-changing nature of the world. The westerners believe that it was the Greek philosopher Heraclitus who said for the first time about the world’s ever changing nature. 5th century BC was his life-time. But the declaration in this Upaniṣad must be about 1000 years prior to that, since this is part of Yajur Veda Samhita which belongs to that age.

Then, who is the Ruler mentioned here? The verse itself says that this Ruler is the in-dweller of everything. That is, everything is pervaded by him. We have already understood from our previous studies that the entity pervading everything is nothing but Ātmā which is the ultimate principle ‘SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA’. It is declared in section 3.7 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad that Ātmā is the inner controller of all beings. Being the sole controller, he is called here as the Ruler; he is one without a second. Since he pervades and controls everything, the entire universe is said to be his body (vide 3.7.1 to 3.7.23 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka). With him remains vested all rights over his body, proprietary as well as possessionary. The physical bodies of all beings are only constituents of this universal body; as the Ruler of the whole, he is to see that all these constituents remain in their appropriate places and that they maintain an inter-connection promoting the sustenance of the whole. It is also essential that each constituent should have access to such of other constituents as are necessary for its survival. Therefore, if any particular constituent acquires everything that fancies him and keep the same under his possession and disposal, over and above its actual sustenance needs, it would spell break-down of the system, as some other constituents will be deprived of the essential resources for its survival. That is why this caution of renunciation: ‘enjoy, but don’t take away anything to own exclusive possession’ (tena tyaktena bhuñjīthā, mā gṛdhaḥ kasyasvid dhanam). It is worthwhile to state here that no socialist or other ethical ideas on welfare of the mankind can ever match this declaration in profundity of wisdom and logic.

All that we have seen advocates a reduced inclination to the pursuit of physical pleasures. It is only when we are increasingly prone to physical pleasures that we start to disregard the needs of others and get entangled in all corrupt and wicked practices which spell ruin for the whole system as well as for ourselves.

When we speak of renunciation, a question would naturally arise, “What should we renounce?” We should have something of our own to renounce; but, as clarified above, we have no true ownership or possession right on anything in this world. This dilemma is solved by the next verse which provides the precise answer; Karma (deed or action) is the answer. Our Karma is our own prerogative (karmaṇi eva adhikāraḥ te – कर्मणि एव अधिकारः ते – Gīta 2.47); it is our existential essentiality (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 1.1.8). Verse 2 insists that one should live by doing Karma; renouncing Karma is not by refraining from doing it, but by submitting the results thereof to the service of the whole. Such performance of Karma does not cause any bondage to the performer (न कर्म लिप्यते नरे – na karma lipyate nare). The verse points out that those who lived a full life in the past did so by doing Karma in this manner. Therefore, the instruction is to follow the same path. The most important thing to be taken in from this verse is that it asserts the compulsory performance of Karma; withdrawal from performing the Karma is not considered a virtue that would absolve us of bondage. What wards off bondage is the renunciation of the results of Karma; so one is not justified in giving up performance of Karma for the sake of detachment (mā saṅgaḥ astu akarmaṇi – मा सङ्गः अस्तु अकर्मणि – Gīta 2.47; see also Gīta 3.4, 3.9, etc). It was this idea, cumulatively occurring in verses 1 & 2, which the communists later re-discovered, after about 3000 years, in their declaration, “From each according to his ability, to each according to his need”.

Having thus laid down necessary instructions for proper living, in conformity with the ultimate principle of Ātmā, the Upaniṣad warns against negation of that principle, in verse 3. Those who defy Ātmā and pursue the ways of selfishness are cast into the worlds of utter darkness wherein the sun of enlightenment never rises; he gets more and more entangled in the whirlpools of worldly life and thus becomes ruined (Wisdom will never dawn on those who are carried away by indulgence in sensual pleasures and affluence – Gīta 2.44).

In continuation of this warning against disregard of the principle of Ātmā, the Upaniṣad presents a description about the nature of Ātmā in verses 4 to 8. Verse 4 says that Ātmā is unmoving and the only one entity; it is faster than the mind and ungraspable by the senses; unmoving, it transcends all that is moving and it is only upon Ātmā that Prāṇa projects all actions (of living beings). Ātmā is unmoving because it pervades everywhere and therefore no space to move into. It is only one, since everything is its manifestation and is pervaded by itself. Being not physical, it is not grasped by the senses and being the energy (consciousness) motivating the mind, it must be faster than the mind. Since every moving object is involved in Ātmā, it is said to transcend all; all actions occur as effects of consciousness part of Ātmā, aided by Prāṇa and therefore it is said that all actions are projected by Prāṇa upon it.

It is further explained in verse 5 that Ātmā pervades all. Verses 6 and 7 speak about how the world is viewed by a person, who sees unity in all beings such that all beings are perceived in himself and also himself in all beings; he cannot hate or reject any being and he cannot have either passion or grief.

Now, we come to the most important verse of Īśāvāsya, the verse 8, which describes the features of Ātmā thus:

स पर्यगात् शुक्रं अकायं अव्रणं अस्नाविरं शुद्धं अपापविद्धम्
कविः मनीषी परिभूः स्वयम्भूः याथातथ्यतोर्थान् व्यदथात् शाश्वतीभ्यः समाभ्यः || 8 ||

sa paryagāt śukraṃ akāyaṃ avraṇaṃ asnāviraṃ śuddhaṃ apāpaviddham
kaviḥ manīṣī paribhūḥ svayambhūḥ yāthātathyatorthān vyadathāt śāśvatībhyaḥ samābhyaḥ (8)

Meaning: ‘He pervades all; he is resplendent, bodiless, uninterrupted, without sinews, pure and devoid of evil; he is far-sighted, omniscient, transcendent and self-existing; it is he who ever sustains all realistic objects’.

This is self-explanatory.

In the next six verses, it is asserted that, together with pursuit of knowledge, Karma also is important in attaining immortality. We cannot choose anyone between these two, for the purpose. Those who exclusively pursue any one of these two will only fall into utter darkness. Through the practice of performing Karma, one should overcome Mṛtyu (Death) (mṛtyu is simply the surrender to temptations of Kāma) and through acquiring knowledge aspire to attain immortality (verses 9 to 14). These two, namely, performing Karma and acquiring knowledge go together, not one after another. Mechanical performance of Karma will not yield the required result; in order to draw lessons from experience, we should have sufficient knowledge also. The importance of performance of Karma lies in its serving as a practical exercise for establishing in the mind what is learnt in theory.

Further, immortality is verily the freedom from being felled by Kāma while Death is the state of being felled by Kāma. Gīta describes in 2.62 and 2.63 how a person faces death by submitting himself to Kāma; Bṛhadāraṇyaka says in 1.2.1 that hunger is death; hunger is the urge for devouring the desired things, which is Kāma only. The ignorant and the weak easily fall prey to the prowling Kāma, continuously. Sage Patañjali says in Yogasūtra 1.4 that we are what our state of mind disposes (वृत्तिसारूप्य – vṛttisārūpya). So, when Kāma overtakes us, we lose our true identity, and meet with death; such deaths occur frequently, many times even in a single day, for an unstable mind. After one death, there is a rebirth into an unenlightened form which again faces death and this chain of deaths continues for ever until we get enlightenment and become relieved of further death; this relief from death is called immortality. The deaths and rebirths evidently occur to the same physical person, not to different bodies; this is because when the body is lost, personal identity is lost for ever as we have already seen in Chāndogya (6.9.1 etc) and Bṛhadāraṇyaka (2.4.12, etc.).

The last four verses (15 to 18) of the Upaniṣad present an instance of an aspirant seeking to know and attain to the eternal truth. In verse 15, the seeker finds that the eternal truth is veiled by a golden plate and therefore, as an aspirant for enlightenment he seeks its removal, for which he makes an appeal to Pūṣan, who is responsible for its deployment. See the verse below:

हिरण्मयेन पात्रेण सत्यस्यापिहितं मुखम्
तत्त्वं पूषन् अपावृणु सत्यधर्माय दृष्टये || 15 ||

hiraṇmayena pātreṇa satyasyāpihitaṃ mukham
tattvaṃ pūṣan apāvṛṇu satyadharmāya dṛṣṭaye (15)

Satyadharma mentioned here means ‘eternal truth’. What is this golden plate and why is it an obstruction to knowing the eternal truth? The golden vessel is the ever-enticing sensual pleasures provided by physical entities. Gold symbolises that enticement. If we are carried away by this enticement, we would never be able to pursue the path of liberation. Pūṣan is the nourisher, the nourisher of physical endowments; obviously, he is responsible for the deployment of physical features that cause the said enticement. That is why the prayer for removal of enticement is directed to him; the prayer is to the effect that Pūṣan may make the endowments less attractive. This is just like removing the pricked thorn by another thorn.

The appeal in verse 15 is followed up in verse 16. The Pūṣan is entreated to employ the whole range of his reins (व्यूह रश्मिन् समूह – vyūha raśmin samūha) to contain the enticing features of this physical world supported by him, so that the aspirant may sight the real glorious Puruṣa within, who is nothing other than what he (the aspirant) really is. The implication is that the same principle (Puruṣa) pervades in all and he is attained on getting detached from the worldly entanglements of pleasure-pain and such other dual experiences.

Further, it is stated in verse 17 that the body will finally turn to ashes, while Prāṇa, which sustains life, is eternal (as it represents the ultimate principle of existence). Therefore, it is prayed that the thoughts about desires be extinguished.

(क्रतो स्मर कृतम् स्मर – krato smara kṛtam smara

kratu – desire; smara – memory, thought; kṛtam- done, extinguished).

Having thus laid down two paths (one of sensual pleasures and the other of enlightenment) to choose between, the Upaniṣad concludes the instructions with a prayer in verse 18 for being led in the right path. The prayer is directed to Agni, the omniscient Lord of all, for destruction of all deceiving evils. Agni is the symbol of knowledge and, therefore, the prayer directed to him implies seeking of enlightenment for distinguishing what is wrong and what is right. Please see the verse below:

अग्ने नय सुपथा राये अस्मान् विश्वानि देव वयुनानि विद्वान्
युयोध्यस्मज्जुहुराणमेनो भूयिष्ठां ते नम उक्तिम् विधेम || 18 ||

agne naya supathā rāye asmān viśvāni deva vayunāni vidvān
yuyodhyasmajjuhurāṇameno bhūyiṣṭhāṃ te nama uktim vidhema (18)

supathā rāye – supremely virtuous course; supatha – virtuous course, rāya – king, prince; vayunāni vidvān – having all knowledge.

Let us also pray for being led in the right path leading to enlightenment.

Readers can contact the author by email at: karthiksreedhar@gmail.com

Kaṭha (कठ) Upaniṣad is the fourth in the series of eleven Principal Upaniṣads that we have taken up for rational review. This Upaniṣad is unique in content, since it deals with, in detail, the question of what happens after death. Apparently to add authenticity to the assertions made, the Upaniṣad supposes that the issue is explained by the Lord of Death himself.

The subject-matter is presented as a dialogue between Lord of Death called Mṛtyu and a young boy by name Nachiketas. (The word mṛtyu – मृत्यु in Sanskrit means death; in the study of this Upaniṣad we use this word with the initial letter ‘M’ in capital to refer to the Lord of Death). Before going to this dialogue, let us recall the position we have assumed in the study of the previous three Upaniṣads. It is this: ours is an independent effort, far removed from the conventional theological interpretation of the Upaniṣadic literature and is made with the aim of bringing out the rational thoughts underlying the mystically presented texts in Upaniṣads. This may be borne in mind when we move forward.

This Upaniṣad is part of Kaṭha Brāhmaṇa of Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda. It contains six parts, each known as a Vallī (वल्ली) and these six parts are presented in two chapters of three Vallīs each. Vallīs are numbered from one to three in each chapter. To refer to a verse, both Vallī number and chapter number are often given; for example, 1.2.3 indicates the third verse of the second Vallī in the first chapter. Another method is to omit the chapter number and give the Vallī numbers continuously from 1 to 6; then, the first verse of the fifth Vallī is indicated as 5.1. Here, we follow the latter method.

Nachiketas was the son of one Vājaśravasaḥ (वाजश्रवसः) presumably belonging to the clan of Gautama. Vājaśravasaḥ was performing a sacrifice in which all his wealth had to be given away in charity. Seeing that very old and weak cows of no use were being distributed, Nachiketas thought that no good would accrue to his father from this sacrifice. As if suggesting himself as a better gift, he asked his father, “To whom will you give me?” The father didn’t say anything. Nachiketas repeated the question again and again. Getting annoyed at this, the father, in a fit of anger, told him that he would give him to Mṛtyu. The innocent boy on hearing the angry words of his father began to think how he could be useful to Mṛtyu. Without any clue therefor, he reached the abode of Mṛtyu, but had to wait there for three nights to have a meeting with Mṛtyu. As a recompense for this 3-night delay, Mṛtyu allowed Nachiketas to ask three boons from him…. This much is the background story narrated in the Upaniṣad, regarding how Nachiketas happened to meet Mṛtyu and had a discussion with him.

The first boon Nachiketas asked was that his father be pacified and no longer be angry with him; the second was for obtaining a ‘fire’ of the gods, which is capable of leading one to heaven and immortality; Mṛtyu readily gave him these boons. Then Nachiketas asked the third boon:

येयं प्रेते विचिकित्सा मनुष्येഽस्तीत्येके नायमस्तीति चैके
एतद्विद्यामनुशिष्टस्त्वयाहं वराणामेष वरस्तृतीयः || 1.20 ||

yeyaṃ prete vicikitsā manuṣyestītyeke nāyamastīti caike
etadvidyāmanuśiṣṭastvayāhaṃ varāṇāmeṣa varastṛtīyaḥ (1.20)

Meaning: ‘This is my third boon: On the question of a dead person, some say that he continues to exist, whereas others say that he ceases to exist (at death); I wish to be taught by you on this issue.’

The issue raised here is undoubtedly very important. Though being the most authoritative person to discourse on this topic, Mṛtyu did not respond positively in the beginning. We see in the next nine verses (from 21 to 29), the attempts of Mṛtyu, on one side, to dissuade Nachiketas from seeking the answer and the determination of Nachiketas, on the other, for getting it.

Mṛtyu says, “This is a very subtle issue; even the gods (deva) had this doubt in the past. It is not easy to know; ask for any other boon. Do not compel me”.

Nachiketas replies, “If even the gods had doubts, I see none other than you to tell me about this secret knowledge. So, I am not going for an alternative boon” (verses 1.21 and 1.22).

Following this, Mṛtyu tried to entice Nachiketas with offers of all kinds of worldly pleasures and possessions like wealth, horses, elephants, cattle, gold, longevity, sons, grandsons, etc. He also promised to fulfil all the desires of Nachiketas and asked him to desist from pressing the question. But Nachiketas spurned all these offers, saying that they were all ephemeral and therefore had no attraction for him; he remained firm in his resolve to know the secret of death. Seeing the unflagging determination of Nachiketas in pursuing the path of knowledge against the lures of worldly pleasures, Mṛtyu finally became pleased to impart the knowledge asked for. But, he did not go directly for answering the question. Instead, he discoursed at length on death and immortality and at the end came out with a brief answer in a single verse. He was actually following a well-designed scheme that culminates in delivering the intended answer. Let us see what his scheme and his answer were.

At first, Mṛtyu appreciates Nachiketas for his choosing the path of knowledge against the path of ignorance. In his opinion two mutually opposing options are open for man; one is śreyas (श्रेयस्) and the other is preyas (प्रेयस्). Out of these, śreyas is that which brings about inner enrichment and preyas is that which ruins the person by entangling him in worldly entailments. Only the wise men choose śreyas; Nachiketas did the same, rejecting all the trappings of preyas. This is what earned him the commendation of Mṛtyu and an opportunity to receive the desired instruction. Only men like Nachiketas can prefer śreyas to preyas. What about others? Mṛtyu says about them thus:

अविद्यायामन्तरे वर्तमानाः स्वयं धीराः पण्डितं मन्यमानाः
दन्द्रम्यमाणाः परियन्ति मूढा अन्धेनैव नीयमाना यथान्धाः || 2.5 ||

avidyāyāmantare vartamānāḥ svayaṃ dhīrāḥ paṇḍitaṃ manyamānāḥ
dandramyamāṇāḥ pariyanti mūḍhā andhenaiva nīyamānā yathāndhāḥ (2.5)

Meaning: ‘The foolish ones, thinking themselves to be intelligent and learned, despite being totally immersed in ignorance, wander around, going from one thing to another, like the blind being led by the blind’.

This verse implies that if one opts for the path of preyas, he is actually foolish, though he may think himself to be wise and learned. Being already ignorant, he is led by ignorance too; the phrase ‘blind led by the blind’ emphasises this fact, blindness being a reference to ignorance. (This verse appears in Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad also – verse 1.2.8 – with a single-word replacement).

In the next verse, 2.6, this idea about the ignorant is further developed and the idea of death is introduced ingeniously. Mṛtyu says,

‘न सांपरायः प्रतिभाति बालं प्रमाद्यन्तं वित्तमोहेन मूढम्
अयं लोको नास्ति पर इति मानी पुनः पुनर्वशमापद्यते मे || 2.6 ||

na sāṃparāyaḥ pratibhāti bālaṃ pramādyantaṃ vittamohena mūḍham
ayaṃ loko nāsti para iti mānī punaḥ punarvaśamāpadyate me (2.6)

Meaning: ‘Such inferior minds are intrinsically negligent and are stupefied by attachment to wealth; pursuit of that which is transcendent will never occur to them. To them there is nothing beyond the world of physical experience; such people come into my clutch again and again’.

Actually, in this verse Mṛtyu begins preparation of the ground for answering the question. His scheme of answering is a very indirect one; he first imparts what death is and then, what immortality is. In this verse Mṛtyu says about those who meet with death again and again; they are the ignorant ones who crave for worldly pleasures. This declaration about death is very important. It defines death as the state of being subjugated by desires for worldly pleasures (preyas). We have already come across this idea of death in our study of Bṛhadāraṇyaka (1.2.1) and Chāndogya (8.6.6) Upaniṣads. The same idea can be seen in Gīta 2.62 & 2.63. We saw it in more detail when we studied verse 8 of Īśāvāsya Upaniṣad.

The consistency of Upaniṣadic thoughts regarding the concept of death is evident from the above references; it cannot be otherwise for a philosophy which upholds the central idea that the whole universe is an appearance of the non-material, eternal, ultimate principle called Ātmā. Any other understanding of death as a total destruction of the physical form, retaining the individual identity of the person for further births is therefore invalid.

Having thus taught about the true import of death, Mṛtyu now moves on to the second part of his scheme; he introduces the concept of immortality. According to Upaniṣadic philosophy, immortality is not freedom from loss of physical body; it is dispossession of Kāma from inside, attained by realising the Ātmā. In order to introduce this concept of immortality Mṛtyu begins by drawing attention of Nachiketas to the entity of Ātmā which is very difficult to attain to; he says that many have not even heard of it and many of those who heard of it, do not know it. Those who know it and attain to it become happy; but, very rare are those who discourse on it and understand it (2.7). Since this subtle entity is variously thought by men with inferior intellect, it cannot be understood properly, if taught by them (2.8). So, the teacher must be properly qualified to impart the knowledge about this entity; so also the disciple should be duly qualified to receive it. Mṛtyu considers himself to be well conversant with the knowledge of Ātmā and further, he sees Nachiketas to be well qualified to receive the instruction. So he is happy to have a disciple like Nachiketas.

In the following verse Mṛtyu further eulogises the knowledge about that entity:

तं दुर्दर्शं गूढमनुप्रविष्ठं गुहाहितं गह्वरेष्ठं पुराणम्
अध्यात्मयोगाधिगमेन देवं मत्वा धीरो हर्षशोकौ जहाति || 2.12 ||

taṃ durdarśaṃ gūḍhamanupraviṣṭhaṃ guhāhitaṃ gahvareṣṭhaṃ purāṇam
adhyātmayogādhigamena devaṃ matvā dhīro harṣaśokau jahāti (2.12)

Meaning: ‘By inner meditation upon that unseen, secret, immanent, primal divinity which is seated in the innermost part of the heart, the enlightened man gets rid of the duality of pleasure-pain’.

Mṛtyu further adds in the next verse (2.13) that by attaining to that divinity, one enjoys bliss. Hearing the inducing words of these two verses, Nachiketas desires to know that divinity which is beyond dualities like virtue and vice, good and bad, and past and future (2.14). Mṛtyu replies:

सर्वे वेदा यत्पदमामनन्ति तपांसि सर्वाणि च यद्वदन्ति
यदिच्छन्तो ब्रह्मचर्यं चरन्ति तत्ते पदं सङ्ग्रहेण ब्रवीम्योमित्येतत् || 2.15 ||

sarve vedā yatpadamāmananti tapāṃsi sarvāṇi ca yadvadanti
yadicchanto brahmacaryaṃ caranti tatte padaṃ saṅgraheṇa bravīmyomityetat (2.15)

Meaning: I shall tell you about that, it is ‘Om’, the sound which all the Vedas extol, all deep meditations declare and the study of Vedas seeks to attain to.

Thus, the ultimate immortal entity is declared as ‘Om’, which sound symbolises Ātmā (vide verse 12 of Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad). Further, we have seen in verses 2.23.2 and 2.23.3 of Chāndogya that ‘Om’ was revealed on successive deep meditations on the worlds and the Vyāhṛti, which implies that ‘Om’ is the essence of phenomenal existence.

In the next ten verses Mṛtyu discourses on the nature of this ultimate principle. In 2.16, it is stated that this is the imperishable, supreme Brahma; if a person knows this, whatever he wishes for, would be his. This, however, does not mean that such a knowing person can command to his possession anything that he wishes for; it only implies that such a person will have nothing to wish for, since a feeling of oneness with everything will be generated in him by that knowledge, resulting in a state wherein nothing external will be there for him to wish for. This is the lesson we have learnt from verses 6 and 7 of Īśāvāsya and 4.4.12 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka. These verses underline the fact that a person who has attained to Ātmā, there would be nothing to wish for or aspire to.

Mṛtyu says in verse 2.17 that Ātmā is the support of all; he declares in verse 2.18 that Ātmā is immortal and eternal:

न जायते म्रियते वा विपश्चित् नायं कुतश्चित् न बभूव कश्चित् |
अजो नित्यः शाश्वतोयं पुराणो न हन्यते हन्यमाने शरीरे || 2.18 ||

na jāyate mriyate vā vipaścit nāyaṃ kutaścit na babhūva kaścit
ajo nityaḥ śāśvatoyaṃ purāṇo na hanyate hanyamāne śarīre (2.18)

Meaning: ‘This omniscient Ātmā is neither born, nor does he die; he has not originated from anywhere or anything. He is unborn, eternal, everlasting and ancient; he is not destroyed even when the body is destroyed.

We find the same verse in Gīta 2.20, with a one-word change. Again, Gīta verse 2.19 and Kaṭha verse 2.19 are identical, both saying that those, who consider Ātmā as killing or being killed, do not know the truth. In this connection, please also recall verse 8.1.5 of Chāndogya.

Mṛtyu says in verse 2.20 that Ātmā is subtler than the subtle and grosser than the gross and is seated in the heart of all beings. A desire-free person, with composed senses and mind, perceives his glory and gets freed from grief. We have learned about the subtlety and the seat of Ātmā in Chāndogya 3.14.3. Regarding the seat of Ātmā we had a detailed discussion while appreciating verse 8.1.5 of Chāndogya; please refer to that for further clarification. There are a number of verses in other Upaniṣads also highlighting the seating of Ātmā; we will see them all, in due course. Gīta verses 13.17, 15.15 and 18.61 also say about the seat of Ātmā.

Mṛtyu continues his discourse on Ātmā in verses 2.21 and 2.22. Wise men get rid of grief by knowing the great, bodiless, all-pervading Ātmā seated in perishable bodies (2.22). However, Ātmā cannot be known by oral instructions or by mere intelligence or by much hearing about it; it is known by him who is fully dedicated to it. To such a person Ātmā reveals its true nature (2.23).

Thus, in this Vallī we have been introduced to the concepts of death and immortality; we are also told about the entity, on knowing which one may attain immortality. In the next Vallī (3rd) the same line of thinking is pursued further. In verses 3.3 and 3.4, Ātmā is depicted as the lord of a chariot driven by Buddhi (the reasoning faculty), wherein the chariot is the body and the rein is Manas (mind). (Buddhi and Manas are two of the four antaḥkaraṇas – अन्तःकरण – organs of internal organs. The other two Antaḥkaraṇa are Chitta and Ahaṃkāra; the English equivalent of Antaḥkaraṇa is Psyche). The sense organs are the horses of the chariot. Where do they proceed to? They chase their respective objects (object of ears is the sound, that of eyes is the sight and so on). Ātmā, the senses and the Manas together are known as the enjoyer (3.3 and 3.4). These two verses are very famous and are therefore quoted below:

आत्मानं रथिनं विद्धि शरीरं रथमेव तु
बुद्धिं तु सारथिं विद्धि मनः प्रग्रहमेव च || 3.3 ||

ātmānaṃ rathinaṃ viddhi śarīraṃ rathameva tu
buddhiṃ tu sārathiṃ viddhi manaḥ pragrahameva ca (3.3)

इन्द्रियाणि हयानाहुः विषयांस्तेषु गोचरान्
आत्मेन्द्रियमनोयुक्तं भोक्तेत्याहुर्मनीषिणः || 3.4 ||

indriyāṇi hayānāhuḥ viṣayāṃsteṣu gocarān
ātmendriyamanoyuktaṃ bhoktetyāhurmanīṣiṇaḥ (3.4)

The idea sought to be presented here is the Ātmā-body relationship. It is same as we have already found in the first verse of Īśāvāsya Upaniṣad, “īśāvāsyamidaṃ sarvaṃ ….” It also furthers the concept that Ātmā is seated in the heart. It is the duty of Buddhi to guide the chariot by harnessing the horses of the sense organs, using the rein of Manas. The goal obviously is what the master directs. Since the master, the Ātmā, is the origin of everything, he attracts everything to himself; everything is attached to him just as the beads of a rosary (Gīta 7.7). So the final destination of the chariot is Ātmā himself (vide verse 3.11 mentioned below). It goes without saying, that if the rein or the horse is bad, or if the driver is negligent, the goal will not be attained (Verses 5 to 9).

The Ātmā-body relationship is further explored in verses 3.10 and 3.11. Verse 3.10 declares that sense-objects (such as sound, touch, etc.) are superior to (subtler than) senses; Manas is superior to the sense-objects; Buddhi is superior to Manas; that which is superior to Buddhi is ‘Mahān Ātmā’.

What is this Mahān Ātmā? It is the expanding state of Ātmā; mahat indicates that which expands. How is this expanding state like? As a prelude to manifestation of the physical world, Ātmā invokes Prakṛti which is its inalienable power to appear in different forms. With the Prakṛti invoked, Ātmā is known as Puruṣa. This Puruṣa- Prakṛti combine is called Brahma and it is the Brahma that expands and differentiates into various names and forms constituting the universe. Before this expansion starts, the state of Brahma is known as Avyakta (undifferentiated). When the differentiation is in process, it is called ‘Mahān Ātmā’.

From the above explanation, it is evident that Avyakta is superior to Mahān Ātmā (or Mahat) and Puruṣa is superior to Avyakta. Since Puruṣa is Ātmā himself, nothing is superior to Puruṣa. This is the position declared in verse 3.11. This comparison appears again in verses 6.7 and 6.8. Verse 3.11 also declares that this Puruṣa is the ultimate goal. What should one do to achieve that goal? Mṛtyu gives the answer in verse 3.14:

उत्तिष्ठत जाग्रत प्राप्य वरान् निबोधत
क्षुरस्य धारा निशिता दुरत्यया दुर्गं पथस्तत् कवयो वदन्ति || 3.14 ||

uttiṣṭhata jāgrata prāpya varān nibodhata
kṣurasya dhārā niśitā duratyayā durgaṃ pathastat kavayo vadanti (3.14)

Meaning: Be awake and be active; approach the learned and get enlightened.
The wise say that the path is very difficult to tread, like the sharp edge of a razor.

‘Be awake and be active’ means that one should first discipline his inner faculties and then strive for getting the necessary instructions. The rest is self-explanatory.

The goal to be achieved is once more highlighted in the next verse. It is a very important verse, as it asserts that, by attaining to Ātmā, one is freed from the mouth of death. See the verse below:

अशब्दमस्पर्शमरूपमव्ययं तथारसं नित्यमगन्धवच्च यत्
अनाद्यनन्तं महतः परं ध्रुवं निचाय्य तंमृत्युमुखात् प्रमुच्यते || 3.15 ||

aśabdamasparśamarūpamavyayaṃ tathārasaṃ nityamagandhavacca yat
anādyanantaṃ mahataḥ paraṃ dhruvaṃ nicāyya taṃmṛtyumukhāt pramucyate (3.15)

Meaning: By attaining to that which is without sound, touch, form, taste and smell, that which is imperishable, eternal, without beginning and end, and that which is superior to Mahat, one escapes from the prowl of death.

The implication is that one who has attained to Ātmā remains untouched by death; he never dies. Attaining to Ātmā means shedding all dualities which are essential features of physical existence; for, Ātmā is without any attributes as clarified in this verse. Even for a person who has attained to Ātmā in this way, the physical body is subject to decay and disintegration, which in common parlance is death. So, what is the justification for the declaration that he escapes death? The inference is therefore that what we consider as death is not the death which Mṛtyu intends here. The verse says that freedom from physical dualities is freedom from death. Conversely, capitulation to dualities is death. This capitulation takes place through the wandering senses to satisfy the Kāma within; Kāma is defined as reinforced attachment (vide Gīta 2.62). Thus, capitulation to dualities becomes capitulation to Kāma. This is the philosophical definition of death and Mṛtyu follows this definition in clarifying the doubt of Nachiketas. These new concepts of death and immortality are continued further in Vallī 4.

In verse 4.1 Mṛtyu declares that senses are intrinsically oriented outwardly and therefore they cognise the physical appearance only, not the inner principle; but, in order to attain to immortality, inward cognition is essential. We find a further clarification in the next verse; please see it here:

पराचः कामाननुयन्ति बालाः ते मृत्योर्यन्ति विततस्य पाशम्
अथ धीरा अमृतत्वं विदित्वा ध्रुवमध्रुवेष्विह न प्रार्थयन्ते || 4.2 ||

parācaḥ kāmānanuyanti bālāḥ te mṛtyoryanti vitatasya pāśam
atha dhīrā amṛtatvaṃ viditvā dhruvamadhruveṣviha na prārthayante (4.2)

Meaning: ‘Inferior minds pursue desires for external objects and get caught up in the wide-spread snare of death; but, the wise recognizing the eternal immortality underlying such ephemeral objects, do not harbour any desires’.

With this declaration, the position that death is capitulation to Kāma has become a settled one; it is also settled that immortality is the opposite of such death and that it is gained by renouncing Kāma. Evidently, Mṛtyu is going forward slowly with his scheme designed for clearing Nachiketas’ doubt.

How can we attain to the said eternal immortality? Is there any special tool for that? No, there is no special tool other than what we already possess. The tool with which the senses cognise the sense objects is verily the tool for cognising immortality also. Obviously, the tool is pure consciousness; this consciousness is capable of taking us beyond the sense objects to the ultimate and immortal entity. (4.3).

Here comes the final, concluding assertion on what constitutes death. See how Mṛtyu does it, in verse 4.10:

यदेवेह तदमुत्र यदमुत्र तदन्विह
मृत्योः स मृत्युमाप्नोति य इह नानेव पश्यति || 4.10 ||

yadeveha tadamutra yadamutra tadanviha
mṛtyoḥ sa mṛtyumāpnoti ya iha nāneva paśyati (4.10)

Meaning: ‘What is here is the same as what is there and vice versa. (That means, everywhere the same thing exists). He who sees differently meets with death again and again’.

The implied meaning is a re-assertion of what we are by now very familiar with. We know that Kāma overtakes us, if only we see something different from us and desire for it; if we perceive everything as a part of us, everything as belonging to us, then there will not be anything to aspire for; then there will not be any space for Kāma. In other words, when we see things other than us, we covet them, enabling Kāma to strike root in us. This will culminate in our death (death in the philosophical sense mentioned above). So long as we fail to see the unity of existence and continue to see things as separate from us, death occurs to us repeatedly; we go from death to death.

It has been declared above that only the same thing exists everywhere. What is that thing? Mṛtyu answers this question in verses 4.12 and 4.13; that thing is the Puruṣa who rules over both past and future; he is seated in the central part of the body and is only thumb-sized (4.12 and 4.13). The same idea is repeated in verse 6.17 also. The ‘central part’ is a reference to the heart, which we have seen previously as ‘Thalamus’ in modern parlance; ‘thumb-size’ indicates the size of Thalamus. The implications of this seating have been discussed in detail already in 8.1.1 of ‘The Science of Chāndogya Upaniṣad’.

The last verse (15) of this Vallī describes the transformation that happens to the person who gets enlightened; he becomes the Ātmā himself, just as when pure water is poured into pure water, both become identified with each other. That means, he attains immortality; for, Ātmā is immortal. See the verse below:

यथोदकं शुधे शुधमासिक्तं तादृगेव भवति
एवं मुनेर्विजानत आत्मा भवति गौतम || 4.15 ||

yathodakaṃ śudhe śudhamāsiktaṃ tādṛgeva bhavati
evaṃ munervijānata ātmā bhavati gautama (4.15)

Now we enter into the most important Vallī of the Upaniṣad, the Vallī in which the crucial question is finally answered. However, prior to answering the question, the Upaniṣad explores the essential constitution of living beings, in view of the fact that death occurs to such beings only. It is stated that living beings consist of the physical body that is inherently prone to degeneration and Ātmā which supports the body and the life therein; they owe their existence to Ātmā. We see these declarations in verses 5.4 and 5.5, extracted below.

अस्य विस्रंसमानस्य शरीरस्थस्य देहिनः
देहाद्विमुच्यमानस्य किमत्र परिशिष्यत एतद्वै तत् || 5.4 ||

asya visraṃsamānasya śarīrasthasya dehinaḥ
dehādvimucyamānasya kimatra pariśiṣyata etadvai tat (5.4)

न प्राणेन नापानेन मर्त्यो जीवति कश्चन
इतरेण तु जीवन्ति यस्मिन्नेतावुपाश्रितौ || 5.5 ||

na prāṇena nāpānena martyo jīvati kaścana
itareṇa tu jīvanti yasminnetāvupāśritau (5.5)

Meaning: 5.4 : Dehin (देहिन्) means that which possesses a deha or body; it is obviously Puruṣa. The verse says thus: that which remains to a Dehin when the body is separated, is ‘that’ (Ātmā). The implication is that living beings consist of a physical body and the Ātmā supporting life from within, pervading the entire body. We have seen this idea already, in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 3.7.3 to 3.7.23.

5.5: This verse says that man lives, not because of Prāṇa or Apāna (two functional divisions of the vital energy – breath – which we will study in detail in Praśna Upaniṣad), but because of something else on which these two are dependent. The implication is this: man is ultimately dependent on the power of Ātmā.

Mṛtyu now takes up the question, offering to tell Nachiketas about the eternal Brahma as well as how Ātmā exists when death occurs. He says:

हन्त ते इदं प्रवक्ष्यामि गुह्यं ब्रह्म सनातनम्
यथा च मरणं प्राप्य आत्मा भवति गौतम || 5.6 ||

hanta te idaṃ pravakṣyāmi guhyaṃ brahma sanātanam
yathā ca maraṇaṃ prāpya ātmā bhavati gautama (5.6)

In the next verse, his long overdue answer comes. It may be noted that 72 verses have passed since the question was put to him; the Upaniṣad has only a total of 119 verses. In all the verses so far passed, the subject matter was how and why one meets with death and also how and when he can make an escape from death and attain immortality. In all these instructions we have seen that death is perceived as not what we conventionally understand; disintegration of body is not total annihilation, since disintegration is only a change of form and name; that which exists can never cease to exist. That which exists will always be there, only the appearance may change, just as different ornaments successively made of the same ingot of gold. We have also seen that immortality is not the absence of disintegration of physical body. So, it is very important that we should receive the instruction, which Mṛtyu is now going to give, with all this background awareness. Actually, Mṛtyu was enriching the awareness level of Nachiketas through all these 72 verses of instruction so as to make him eligible for receiving the final reply in a higher plane of enlightenment. It is therefore incumbent upon us that we should also receive the ensuing instruction with the same enlightenment which Mṛtyu expected of Nachiketas while instructing him so far. And, what was the reply? Here it is:

योनिमन्ये प्रपद्यन्ते शरीरत्वाय देहिनः
स्थाणुमन्ये ഽनुसंयन्ति यथा कर्म यथा श्रुतम् || 5.7 ||

yonimanye prapadyante śarīratvāya dehinaḥ
sthāṇumanyeഽnusaṃyanti yathā karma yathā śrutam (5.7)

Meaning: yoni = origin (beginning); anye = another; prapadyante = assume, attain; śarīratva = the state of having a body; śarīratvāya = for the sake of body; dehinaḥ = dehins; sthāṇu = immovable, unchangeable; anusaṃyanti = go towards; yathā karma = according to karma (deed); yathā śrutam = according to what is heard (learnt).

So, the meaning of the verse is this: ‘(After death), some Dehins assume another beginning for the sake of body, while others go towards the unchangeable, in accordance with each one’s karma and knowledge’. We have seen that death is capitulation to Kāma; inferior minds follow the senses under the influence of Kāma and meet with death (verse 4.2). So, in this death, the body is not lost and the Dehin continues to be as such. If, in the light of his acquired knowledge, Dehin learns, from his fall, any lesson regarding the danger of Kāma, he tries to keep away from Kāma and, as a result, gains stability of mind; this would finally take him to the changeless entity, which is Ātmā. This is what is said here as going ‘towards the unchangeable’. Contrarily, if he does not learn any lesson and is not able to defy the calls of bodily pleasures, he opts for another beginning in the same line, finally landing in death’s trap again and again as stated in 4.2. This situation is depicted here as ‘assuming another beginning for the sake of body’.

This is the true meaning which is in conformity with the rational thinking consistently seen in all the Principal Upaniṣads; we have by now had first-hand knowledge on it. As against this rational position, the conventional interpretation of the verse is quite calamitous to the universally acknowledged concept of Ātmā; that interpretation is rather mythological, not in level with the superior wisdom of Upaniṣads. The advocates of this interpretation give the meaning of this verse thus: ‘some Dehins go to wombs for new bodies; others become immovables like trees, according to their karma and knowledge’. It is unfortunate that they ignore even the meaning of the word ‘Dehin’. When the Deha is gone, what is left is Ātmā only; then, we cannot call it Dehin (see 5.4). Since Ātmā is all-pervasive there is no question of it going from some place to another in search of womb; moreover, by the same reason, there cannot be a womb without Ātmā and waiting for it to come. Further, they commit a grave mistake in assuming that ‘sthāṇu’ in the verse is ‘immovable beings like trees’. The word ‘sthāṇu’ means that which is without change; it is Ātmā. In Gīta verse 2.24 Ātmā is described as sthāṇu; does it mean that Ātmā is only something like a tree? Above all, if it is to give this simple, trite, silly answer, Mṛtyu could have given it at the outset itself. Instead, he gave all these instructions on snares of death and on attaining to immortality in long 72 verses. He dissuaded Nachiketas by saying that even the gods do not know the answer and also by offering many enticing gifts. Moreover, it is a well-established principle that Ātmā never gets attached or smeared by anything. We will see this in verse 5.11 below; we see this fact in Gīta verse 13.32. The import of Gīta verses 2.23 and 2.24 is also the same. If Ātmā cannot be smeared by anything, it cannot be affected by the Karma and knowledge of the Dehin. All these make the conventional interpretation unrealistic and untenable.

The doubt raised by Nachiketas is now cleared. But Mṛtyu has in verse 5.6 offered to reveal what the eternal Brahma is. In the next verse he does it.

य एष सुप्तेषु जागर्ति कामं कामं पुरुषो निर्मिमाणः
तदेव शुक्रं तद्ब्रह्म तदेवामृतमुच्यते
तस्मिंल्लोकाः श्रिताः सर्वे तदु नात्येति कश्चन एतद्वै तत् || 5.8 ||

ya eṣa supteṣu jāgarti kāmaṃ kāmaṃ puruṣo nirmimāṇaḥ
tadeva śukraṃ tadbrahma tadevāmṛtamucyate
tasmiṃllokāḥ śritāḥ sarve tadu nātyeti kaścana etadvai tat (5.8)

Meaning: supta= sleeping, inactive; jāgarti= be awake; kāma= desire, wish; nirmimāṇaḥ= making, projecting; śukraṃ= resplendent; śritāḥ= dependent; atyeti= surpass, pass beyond. The verse says: “In the sleeping, inactive thing (Prakṛti), the Puruṣa remains awake and active; he projects thereupon all the objects of desire. This, the Puruṣa and the Prakṛti together, is the resplendent, immortal Brahma. The worlds are dependent on it and nothing surpasses it”. In this connection, please recall the discussion in the previous articles, regarding Brahma and see the convergence of thoughts.

In the next two verses (5.9 and 5.10), Mṛtyu explains how the one and only one Ātmā reflects different forms in different objects. It is just like fire or air acquiring shapes with reference to the objects within which they exist; when air is trapped in a container, its shape is that of the container and, likewise, when fire burns on a small object, it is small in size. In the same manner, the reflection of Ātmā in bodies is limited by their physical periphery. If Ātmā pervades all, what is the meaning in claiming that its reflection in bodies is limited by their physical periphery? The limitation of reflection consists in the peculiar attributes of the respective bodies. For example, in a piece of gold, the reflection pertains to the expression of the various features and qualities of gold; similarly in other things. Verse 5.11 says, as mentioned above, that Ātmā is not smeared by worldly experiences.

Mṛtyu asserts thus in verses 5.12 and 5.13: ‘those who realise that the same Ātmā shines in them and in all others, attain to eternal bliss and peace’. In the next two verses, he declares that Ātmā cannot be pointed out in the manner, “That is this”. It is the one that shines (exists) by itself and others shine (exist) because of it. See how verse 15, the last one of the fifth Vallī elaborates this idea:

न तत्र सूर्यो भाति न चन्द्रतारकं नेमा विद्युतो भान्ति कुतोഽयमग्निः
तमेव भान्तमनुभाति सर्वं तस्य भासा सर्वमिदं विभाति || 5.15 ||

na tatra sūryo bhāti na candratārakaṃ nemā vidyuto bhānti kutoഽyamagniḥ
tameva bhāntamanubhāti sarvaṃ tasya bhāsā sarvamidaṃ vibhāti (5.15)

Meaning: ‘No sun, no moon, no stars, no lightning and no fire shine there; it shines on its own and all others shine because of it’. (We see the same verse in 2.2.10 of Muṇḍaka and 6.14 of Śvetāśvatara also).

The next Vallī is the last one of this Upaniṣad. It opens with a depiction of Brahma in a slightly different way compared to what we have seen above in verse 5.8. See the verse below:

ऊर्ध्वमूलोഽवाक्शाख एषोഽश्वत्थः सनातनः
तदेव शुक्रं तद्ब्रह्म तदेवामृतमुच्यते
तस्मिंल्लोकाः श्रिताः सर्वे तदु नात्येति कश्चन एतद्वै तत् || 6.1 ||

ūrdhvamūloഽvākśākha eṣoഽśvatthaḥ sanātanaḥ
tadeva śukraṃ tadbrahma tadevāmṛtamucyate
tasmiṃllokāḥ śritāḥ sarve tadu nātyeti kaścana etadvai tat (6.1)

Meaning: aśvatthaḥ= holy fig tree. In this verse, Brahma is equated to an Aśvatthaḥ tree whose roots are above and branches are below; this tree is eternal. The rest is same as we have seen in verse 5.8 above. Gīta also says about this tree in verse 15.1 to 15.4 in greater detail. Look at this tree. The mention that its roots are above, gives an indication of the location of its source of strength and support; ‘above’ indicates transcendence. The all-transcendent entity is verily Ātmā; therefore, the tree has its source and support in Ātmā. Branches of a tree subsist due to the roots. Here the root is Ātmā and branches represent Prakṛti. The root and the branches together represent the Brahma as stated in verse 5.8. Gīta 15.2 explains further that the branches of this tree spread upwards also and the roots extend to bottom.

In the remaining verses, Mṛtyu repeats the concept of immortality and discusses aspects of attaining it. Those who realise this all-pervading Ātmā attain immortality (verse 6.2). Everything in this universe is under the control of Ātmā and follows its rules (6.3). Ātmā is the ultimate of all and is beyond the grasp of the senses; those who know it become immortal (6.7 to 6.9, 6.12, 6.13 and 6.18). Since Ātmā is not within the reach of senses, seekers have to rely on other means. They must refrain from going after the senses; instead, they have to control their activities; this control of senses is called yoga. This will take them to realisation of the ever-existing Ātmā (6.11). When one gets rid of all the Kāma within (through this control of the wandering senses) he will become immortal (6.14 and 6.15). Mentioning about the different types of nerves in the ‘Heart,’ verse 6.16 points out the particular nerve that lays down the path to immortality; we have already seen this in detail when we studied verse 8.6.6 of Chāndogya Upaniṣad.

With this, Mṛtyu concludes his discourses. He takes the concepts of death and immortality to a higher, rational plane, befitting the Upaniṣadic tradition.

Readers can contact the author by email at: karthiksreedhar@gmail.com

In this article, which is the fifth in the series ‘The Science of Upaniṣads’, we propose to study Kena (केन) Upaniṣad. This is very small in size, but, content-wise amazingly terse and succinct. Also called Talavakāra Upaniṣad, it belongs to Talavakāra Brāhmaṇa and contains four parts, of which we concentrate on the first two parts, since it is in them the rational thoughts on the nature of Brahman are expounded.

The other two parts are fable-like in nature depicting the already stated ideas in mythological terms with some elucidation on the modes of meditation upon Brahman. Verses in the Upaniṣad are identified by part number and verse number; accordingly, the second verse of part 1 is indicated by the figure ‘1.2’.

The Upaniṣad draws its name from its opening word ‘kena’, which means ‘by whom’ or ‘by what’. Obviously, the first verse is a question; the whole Upaniṣad rests on that question. We may therefore study the first verse in detail; we shall study the other verses also in depth, considering their terse nature as mentioned above. Now let us see the first verse, below:

केनेषितं पतति प्रेषितं मनः केन प्राणः प्रथमः प्रैति युक्तः
केनेषितां वाचमिमां वदन्ति चक्षुः श्रोत्रं क उ देवो युनक्ति || 1.1 ||

keneṣitaṃ patati preṣitaṃ manaḥ kena prāṇaḥ prathamaḥ praiti yuktaḥ
keneṣitāṃ vācamimāṃ vadanti cakṣuḥ śrotraṃ ka u devo yunakti (1.1)

Word meaning: kena= by whom; iṣitaṃ= tossed, animated; patati= alight on, come down on; preṣitaṃ= urged, commanded, ordered, impelled; manaḥ= manas, mind; prāṇaḥ= vital force, Prāṇa; prathamaḥ= chief, first; praiti= arrive at, come forth; yukta= connected established; vācamimāṃ vadanti= (men) utter this voice; cakṣuḥ= eyes; śrotraṃ= ears; ka= who; u= indeed; devaḥ= the effulgent one; yunakti= enjoins, directs, sets to work, brings together.

Verse meaning: Who urges and animates the mind to alight on (objects)? Who causes (urges and animates) the Prāṇa to come forth and get established (in the body) for the first time? Who causes (men) to utter this voice? Which effulgent one directs the eyes and ears (to work)?

The question is prima facie oriented towards the principle that sustains the phenomenal world. It recognises the view that material world is dependent on something beyond it. What is that ‘something’? This precisely is the enquiry here. Is the enquiry being made for a non-existent thing, as the materialists would allege? No, not at all; the world experience suggests that matter cannot exist on its own. All material substances disintegrate in due course into their original substance; they behave in accordance with some pre-set pattern and rule and have no escape therefrom. They are unable to control or dictate mental activities; had it been otherwise, the same material circumstances would have created the same thoughts and opinion in all people alike; conversely, all people would have drawn the same lesson from same experience. But, we know that this is not the case. Therefore, matter does not dictate, but is dictated. Who dictates matter? Theologians say that God created all and He controls everything. It is this claim which attracts the aversion of materialists; no person with a rational mind can adjust to this claim. The Upaniṣads come up with a rational way out, from these divergent claims; they synthesise these two views in an amazingly logical way and reveal the ultimate postulations on existence. The ceaseless changes in the material world constitute becoming and unbecoming of material objects; these objects are once projected from some fundamental substances and then after elapse of certain span of time, merge back into the same substances. These fundamental substances are atoms which are only energy drops. We know that energy can neither be produced, nor be destroyed. So, it should come from an eternal source. But, energy is not all; there is life and consciousness in the world. Material energy cannot produce these two; a conglomeration of atoms cannot induce life and consciousness; they too should, therefore, come from an existing source, since nothing can be produced from where it does not exist. The Upaniṣadic synthesis takes place here; it unifies these two sources in a single entity called Ātmā. If these were entirely different and totally unrelated between each other, any attempt to establish a connection between the two would have ended in infinite regression; for, if we introduce a third one for the purpose, another would have been necessary to connect this third to the existing other two, and so on.

So, the question asked is a valid and sustainable one. Further, both the above-said streams are incorporated therein; this is evident from the simultaneous use of the two verbs, namely, ‘urge’ and ‘animate’. Puruṣa is the agent of urging and Prakṛti is the agent of animating; together they are known as Brahma. Puruṣa is Ātmā itself and Prakṛti or Māyā (illusion) is his power and instrument for varied appearance. (Puruṣa is always mentioned in masculine gender and Prakṛti in feminine; Brahma takes neuter gender, being neither masculine nor feminine; Ātmā is genderless, but is mentioned in either masculine or neuter for convenience). The question asked in the verse is evidently an enquiry into the nature of Brahma, though it does not use the word Brahma. It only seeks to know the entity which inspires the mind to think, causes Prāṇa to enter the body for the first time, makes speech possible and makes the eyes and ears function. In the answer we find that the energy behind all these is Brahma; we also find therein a detailed discussion about the true nature of Brahma. Let us move on to the answer.

श्रोत्रस्य श्रोत्रं मनसो मनो यत्
वाचोह वाचं स उ प्राणस्य प्राणः
चक्षुषश्चक्षुरतिमुच्य धीराः
प्रेत्यास्माल्लोकादमृता भवन्ति || 1.2 ||

śrotrasya śrotraṃ manaso mano yat
vācoha vācaṃ sa u prāṇasya prāṇaḥ
cakṣuratimucya dhīrāḥ
pretyāsmāllokādamṛtā bhavanti (1.2)

Word meaning: śrotrasya śrotraṃ= ear of the ear; manaso mano= mind of the mind; yat= which; vācoha vācaṃ= speech of the speech; sa= he (here Brahma is considered a Deva, hence the masculine gender); prāṇasya prāṇaḥ= prāṇa of the prāṇa; cakṣuṣaścakṣuḥ= eye of the eyes; atimucya= having given up, having transcended; dhīrāḥ= the wise; pretya= departed; asmāt lokāt= from this world; amṛtā= immortal; bhavanti= become.

Verse meaning: ‘It is he who is the ear of the ear, mind of the mind, speech of the speech, Prāṇa of the Prāṇa and eye of the eyes; having transcended the senses, the wise get departed from this world and become immortal’.

The ‘ear of the ear, mind of the mind,’ etc indicates the energy that enables the ear to hear, enables the mind to think, etc. We have seen in ‘The Science of Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad’ (verse 3.7.23) that ‘Ātmā is not seen, heard, thought or known; but he is the seer, hearer, thinker and knower; there is no other seer, hearer, thinker or knower. He is the immortal inner controller’. The same idea is expressed here. Similarly in ‘The Science of Kaṭha Upanishad’ (verse 3.15), we have seen that by realising Ātmā which is beyond ear, speech, etc one becomes immortal. In order to be immortal, one should cease to be carried away by sensory experiences. The expression ‘get departed from the world’ precisely means this. It does not mean ‘after he leaves the body’; for, after leaving the body, everyone is Ātmā only and therefore immortal. We have already discussed this idea in the previous articles.

In the next six verses the nature of Brahma is discussed. Verse 1.3 says that Brahma is beyond the reach of eyes, speech and mind; we don’t know it; we don’t know how to teach about it, either. Brahma is different from what is known by the senses and also beyond what remains to be known by them. Excerpts from verse 1.3 may be seen below:

‘न तत्र चक्षुर्गच्छति न वाग्गच्छति नो मनो, न विद्मो न विजानीमो यथैतदनुशिष्यात्
अन्यदेव तद्विदितात् अथो अविदितादधि …… || 1.3 ||

na tatra cakṣurgacchati na vāggacchati no mano na vidmo na vijānīmo yathaitadanuśiṣyāt anyadeva tadviditāt atho aviditādadhi …… (1.3)

In verses 1.4 to 1.8, this idea is further expanded. All these verses speak of the same idea, successively changing the object of comparison, the objects being speech, mind, eyes, ears and Prāṇa. Being a representative verse, 1.4 is quoted below:

यद्वाचानभ्युदितं येन वागभ्युद्यते
तदेव ब्रह्म त्वं विद्धि नेदं यदिदमुपासते || 1.4 ||

yadvācānabhyuditaṃ yena vāgabhyudyate
tadeva brahma tvaṃ viddhi nedaṃ yadidamupāsate (1.4)

Word meaning: yat= what, which; vācā= by speech; anabhyuditaṃ= cannot be expressed; yena= by which; vāk= speech; abhyudyade= is expressed; tat= that; eva= alone, only; tvaṃ= you; viddhi= know; nedaṃ – na idaṃ=not this; yat= which; idaṃ= here; upāsate= worship.

Verse meaning: ‘That, which cannot be expressed by speech, but, that by which speech is expressed — that alone is Brahma, you know. Brahma is not the entity which the people worship here (for favours)’

From verses 1.5 to 1.8 we see thus: ‘Brahma is that which cannot be comprehended by Manas, but, by which Manas comprehends; it is that which cannot be seen by eyes, but, by which eyes see; it is that which cannot be heard by ears, but, by which ears hear; it is that which cannot be smelt by breath, but, by which breath smells. It is definitely not that which people worship here’. The idea of unreachability by senses is present in many other Upaniṣads also, like Bṛhadāraṇyaka 3.7.23, Kaṭha 6.9, Īśa 4, etc.

Further, please note the assertion that the Ruler of this world is not what the people worship here. It is stated that this Ruler is beyond the reach of our senses and those who get relieved from the infatuation of sensual experiences, enter a state of immortality. As against this, the people usually worship certain entities that are visible to them and pray for sensual pleasures and worldly gains; by this practice they are actually going away from the real Ruler. Since, only the Ruler can grant wishes, the prayers to entities other than Ruler are futile. Life is not to be wasted on such futile exercises; it is for moving closer to the real Ruler and ultimately embracing his principle of purity of existence, by elimination of all Kāma within. This is the message here, and with this the first part comes to an end.

In the second part, the ideas introduced in the first part are further pursued into definite conclusions. What is asserted in the first part is that the ruling principle in all is beyond the senses; the second part follows it up by declaring that, those who claim it as easily known, do know only its physical aspect. See the first verse of the second part:

यदि मन्यसे सुवेदेति दभ्रमेवापि
नूनं त्वं वेत्थ ब्रह्मणो रूपम्
यदस्य त्वं यदस्य देवेष्वथ नु
मीमांस्यमेव ते मन्ये विदितम् || 2.1 ||

yadi manyase suvedeti dabhramevāpi
nūnaṃ tvaṃ vettha brahmaṇo rūpam
yadasya tvaṃ yadasya deveṣvatha nu
mīmāṃsyameva te manye viditam (2.1)

Word meaning: yadi= if; manyase= you think; suvedeti – suveda + iti= that it is easily known; dabhramevāpi – debhram + eva + api = though a little, the least; nūnaṃ= surely; tvaṃ= you; vettha= know; brahmaṇo= of Brahma; rūpam= form; yat= what; asya= of it; tvam= you; deveṣu= in devas (in senses – deva here means sense); atha= now; nu= surely; mīmāṃsyam eva = has to be reflected upon; te= they; manye= I think; viditam= understood.

Verse meaning: ‘If you think the least that Brahma is easily known, you know only its form. What of it (the real Brahma) are you? What of it is (perceived) in the senses? These are now to be surely reflected upon; I think, you have understood (what I now said)’.

In verse 2.3.1 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad it is declared that Brahma has two forms, namely, mortal and immortal, perceptible and imperceptible, etc. Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad declares that those who know Brahma become Brahma (3.2.9). Similar declarations are there in Taittirīya (2.1) and Kaṭha (4.15) Upaniṣads also. In 4.4.7 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka and 6.14 of Kaṭha it is stated that Brahma is attained by those who eliminate all the Kāma from heart; eliminating Kāma is obviously a very difficult thing to accomplish, which indicates the difficulty in knowing the immortal Brahma. That which can be easily known is only its perceptible, mortal form which is physical in nature. It is these facts that the assertion in the first line of the verse brings to light.

The reference to ‘form’ in this verse is to be understood as physical form. This physical form is conveyed to us by the senses. Knowing Brahma does not consist in this alone; the immortal and imperceptible form also has to be known. Then only we realise our real essence (ahaṃ brahmāsmi – Bṛhadāraṇyaka – 1.4.10). The question ‘what of it are you?’ refers to this fact. The phrase ‘mīmāṃsyameva te’ means that these two, the physical part and the imperceptible essence, are to be reflected upon.

Since the scriptural position is that the one who knows Brahma becomes the very Brahma, the statement “I know Brahma” cannot exist; for, in this statement there is an implication that the knower and the known are separate. So, those who really know Brahma do not utter such a statement. That is why verse 2.1 observes that a person making such a claim knows only the (physical) form of Brahma.

In the next two verses, 2.2 and 2.3, the difficulty in knowing the ultimate cause is further explained. It is asserted that this is neither easily known, nor perceived (by the senses). See verse 2.2 below:

Verse 2.2:

नाहं मन्ये सुवेदेति नो न वेदेति वेद च
यो नस्तद्वेद तद्वेद नो न वेदेति वेद च || 2.2 ||

nāhaṃ manye suvedeti no na vedeti veda ca
yo nastadveda tadveda no na vedeti veda ca (2.2)

Word meaning: na= not; ahaṃ= I; no – naḥ= to us, among us; veda= know, perceive; yo= yaḥ= who; tat= that. (For meaning of other words, see verse 2.1 above).

Verse meaning: I don’t think (nāhaṃ manye) that it is easily known (suvedeti); further, I know this too (veda ca) that we don’t perceive it (no na vedeti). Whoever among us knows it (yo nastadveda), knows also that it is not easily known (the second ‘tadveda’ in the second line indicates the expression ‘na suveda iti’ of the first line); he also knows that we don’t perceive it (no na vedeti veda ca).

In this verse, the word ‘veda’ is used in two senses, namely ‘know’ and ‘perceive’. To understand the purport of the verse, we have to distinguish between these two senses with reference to the philosophical context obtainable from the Upaniṣadic declarations on Ultimate Principle, consistently appearing elsewhere also. These declarations unanimously uphold that the Ultimate Principle is not easily known and is not perceived by the senses. What we find here is precisely a reaffirmation of these declarations.

Now we shall see the next verse:

Verse 2.3:

यस्यामतं तस्य मतं मतं यस्य न वेद सः
अविज्ञातं विजानतां विज्ञातं अविजानताम् || 2.3 ||

yasyāmataṃ tasya mataṃ mataṃ yasya na veda saḥ
avijñātaṃ vijānatāṃ vijñātaṃ avijānatām (2.3)

Word meaning: yasya= to whom; amatam= imperceptible; tasya= to him; matam= known; veda= know; avijñātaṃ= not known; vijānatāṃ= to those who think to apprehend it; vijñātaṃ= known; avijānatām= to those who do not think to apprehend it.

Verse meaning: ‘To whom it is imperceptible, to him it is known. To whom it is perceptible, he does not know it. (Further,) it is not known to those who think it to be apprehended and is known to those who do not think so’. The implication is that those who consider this ultimate principle to be perceivable by the senses do not know it; it is those others who actually know it.

The next verse says about how the ultimate principle is actually known. In Māṇḍūkya (माण्डूक्य) Upaniṣad, it is declared that this principle has a four-pronged projection, namely, the waking, dreaming, sleeping and transcendent states of consciousness. In the waking state, our senses are active in the process of cognition; in the dreaming state, the senses are shut down and the Manas builds up cognition through a process of jigsaw puzzle, using whatever information is already available in the Chitta; in the sleeping state (ie. deep sleep state) there is no cognition about any specific thing, but only the consciousness of ‘I am’. In the transcendent state, there is no differentiation of any kind and all cognitions merge into pure consciousness; only unqualified bliss is the experience at this state; this state is the ultimate principle called Ātmā. If one is able to discern the Ātmā in all these four states of consciousness, he is said to really know Ātmā.Gīta verses 6.29, 6.30 and 6.31 describe this vision of unity, wherein the principle of Ātmā alone is cognised among the vast diversity of phenomenal expression. Such a visionary is not subdued by dualities like pleasure-pain, hate-love, etc. (Īśa 6 and 7). This is the idea we find in the next verse; let us see how the verse delivers it:

प्रतिबोधविदितं मतं अमृतत्वं हि विन्दते
आत्मना विन्दते वीर्यं विद्यया विन्दतेഽमृतम् || 2.4 ||

pratibodhaviditaṃ mataṃ amṛtatvaṃ hi vindate
ātmanā vindate vīryaṃ vidyayā vindateഽmṛtam (2.4)

Word meaning: pratibodha= in each state of consciousness (bodha – consciousness); vidita= known; matam= known, understood; amṛtatvaṃ= immortality; hi= indeed, surely; vindate= knows, attains, acquires; ātmanā= by own being; vīryaṃ= strength, power; vidyayā= by knowledge; amṛtam= immortality.

Verse meaning: The ultimate principle is known (viditam) in each state of consciousness (pratibodha). When it is known (matam) thus, immortality is surely attained (amṛtatvaṃ hi vindate). Strength (vīryaṃ) (for knowing it) is acquired (vindate) by own being (ātmanā). On knowing it (vidyayā) immortality (amṛtam) is attained (vindate).

We have seen above what the phrase ‘pratibodha viditam’ implies. What is left to be explained is ‘ātmanā vindate vīryaṃ’. Its explanation is already given in the verse as ‘strength is acquired by own being’. In our study of the ‘Science of Kaṭha Upaniṣad’ we saw that one can attain immortality when all the Kāma within are eliminated (Kaṭha 6.14, 6.15). The same idea can be seen in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 4.4.7. How can this be done? First, by restraining the mind and the senses from pursuing the objects of desires, which is a strenuous process called Yoga expounded by the Great Ṛṣi Patañjali in his Yogasūtra (this Yoga has only a very little connection with what we now practise as Yogāsana); secondly, by performance of Karma in the light of such restraint. So, this is how the strength for attaining immortality is acquired; the entire process is dependent on the body and mind of the person. The phrase ‘own being’ in this verse indicates exactly the combine of body and mind instrumental in gaining the strength in this manner. Together with thus gaining strength, the person acquires knowledge also, uplifting himself to the ultimate goal of attaining immortality. The processes of gaining strength and acquiring knowledge proceed simultaneously; they are mentioned here separately for the purpose of differentiating their distinct identities.

Cumulatively, this verse stresses the importance of ‘vision of unity in diversity’, as the path leading to immortality; to develop such a vision, the physical body is prescribed as a tool.

Next is the last verse of Part 2. It says that by knowing Brahma one becomes Satyam; if not, he is ruined. It also says that by recognising Brahma in every being, one transcends this world and attains immortality. The verse reads thus:

इह चेदवेदीत् अथ सत्यमस्ति न चेदिहावेदीत् महती विनष्टिः
भूतेषु भूतेषु विचित्य धीराः प्रेत्यास्माल्लोकादमृता भवन्ति || 2.5 ||

iha cedavedīt atha satyamasti na cedihāvedīt mahatī vinaṣṭiḥ
bhūteṣu bhūteṣu vicitya dhīrāḥ pretyāsmāllokādamṛtā bhavanti (2.5)

Word meaning: iha= here; cet= if; avedīt= knows; satyam= satyam (it is not ‘truth’ as conventionally understood; it has got definite philosophical meaning); na= not; mahatī= grave; vinaṣṭiḥ= ruin, loss; bhūteṣu= in beings; vicitya= having discerned; dhīrāḥ= the wise; pretya= having departed, getting detached; asmāt lokāt= from this world; amṛtā= immortal; bhavanti= become

Verse meaning: ‘If one knows (that ultimate principle) here itself, he becomes ‘satyam’; if not, he faces grave ruin. Having discerned (the principle) in every being, the wise get detached from this world and become immortal’.

The meaning is very clear, except a little clarification wanting on the word ‘satyam’. In the study of Bṛhadāraṇyaka (5.5.1) and Chāndogya (8.3.5) Upaniṣads we have discussed in detail about ‘Satyam’. It is ‘Asat’ supported by ‘Sat’. Brahma is ‘Satyam’ (Chāndogya 8.3.4). Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad says in verse 3.2.9 that one who knows Brahma becomes Brahma itself; that means he becomes ‘Satyam’. This very fact is stated here also, in ‘cedavedīt atha satyamasti’. Further, Bṛhadāraṇyaka verse 3.8.10 says that one who fails to know the Imperishable Entity becomes a Kṛpaṇa (worthless person). This degeneration is what is stated here as grave ruin.

Again, verse 7 of Īśa Upaniṣad says that one who sees Ātmā in all beings gets rid of all pain and grief. And, Gīta verse 6.30 declares that the one, who sees Ātmā in all and all in Ātmā, becomes immortal. The implication of the second line of the above verse is the same.

Parts 3 and 4 of this Upaniṣad are, as already stated, only mythological illustrations of the contents of the other parts. So, we leave them without any discussion.

Before winding up our discussion, let us have a recount of the message that the Upaniṣad has given us. It has revealed that there exists a transcendent entity that urges and activates the senses in their functions and also sustains life; those who transcend the limits of the senses attain immortality. This entity is known as Brahma which is not reached by the senses. Brahma is very difficult to be attained. It is attainable through the consciousness within; those who so attain it become ‘Satyam’ and others are ruined. This, in short, is the message of Kena Upaniṣad.

Readers can contact the author by email at: karthiksreedhar@gmail.com

In the series ‘The Science of Upaniṣads’, it is Māṇḍūkya (माण्डूक्य) Upaniṣad that we now take up for study and rational review; this is the sixth in the series of eleven Upaniṣads. Māṇḍūkya belongs to Atharva Veda, together with two other Principal Upaniṣads, Muṇḍaka and Praśna. What the word Māṇḍūkya signifies is not definitely known; in the study of the Upaniṣad it is not significant either.

Māṇḍūkya is the smallest of the eleven Principal Upaniṣads under our review; it has only 12 verses, numbered serially from 1 to 12. Nevertheless, it is the tersest of all, expounding in a unique manner the nature of shining of Ātmā in beings, with particular importance to the aspect of CHIT (consciousness). It uncovers four distinct modes of expression of CHIT.

Brevity of the Upaniṣad is an indication of the terseness in contents presentation, warranting detailed study of each verse. However, before moving on to the verses, we may recall our declared adherence to the rational path in the study of Upaniṣads. This may at times entail departure from conventional understanding and teaching by theologians and spiritual luminaries; in such cases the views expressed here may be appreciated with a rational approach befitting this age of scientific spirit. In our study, we shall also pursue our commitment to look for and abide by the consistency of teachings in all the Principal Upaniṣads taken together, which is essential for comprehensive understanding of their philosophy.

Let us now see the first verse:

ओमित्येतदक्षरमिदं सर्वं तस्योपव्याख्यानं भूतं भवद्भविष्यदिति सर्वमोङ्कार एव | यच्चान्यत् त्रिकालातीतं तदप्योङ्कार एव || 1 ||

omityetadakṣaramidaṃ sarvaṃ tasyopavyākhyānaṃ bhūtaṃ bhavadbhaviṣyaditi sarvamoṅkāra eva yaccānyat trikālātītaṃ tadapyoṅkāra eva. (1)

Word meaning: om- Om; iti- known as; etat- this; akṣaram- syllable; idaṃ- here, this; sarvaṃ- all; tasya- its; upavyākhyānaṃ- explanation, interpretation (physical translation, which is verily manifestation); bhūtaṃ- past; bhavat- present; bhaviṣyat- future; eva- verily; yat- which, what; ca- and; anyat- others; trikāla- past, present and future taken together, atītaṃ- beyond, transcending; tat- that; api- also.

Verse meaning: ‘All this is the syllable known as ‘Om’, (rather) its manifestation. Everything in the past, present and future is verily Om; if anything is there transcending these three expressions of time, then, that too is verily ‘Om’.

In verses 2.23.2 and 2.23.3 of Chāndogya Upaniṣad it is said that Vedas issued forth on account of intense meditation by Prajāpati on the worlds; in the same manner the three words ‘bhūḥ, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ (bhur, bhuva, sva)’ issued forth from the Vedas; and ‘Om’ issued forth from these three words, by intense meditation. The implication is that the principle of ‘Om’ was reached by successive intense meditations on the worlds, the Vedas and the three words of ‘bhūḥ, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ’. ‘Om’ is thus the ultimate essence of the worlds; the said meditations indicate a churning process to bring forth that essence, like the churning of Kṣīra Sāgara for obtaining the mythological amṛta, wherein Kṣīra Sāgara represents the universe.

If ‘Om’ is the essence of the worlds, then reversely, the worlds must be the manifestation of ‘Om’. This exactly is what the first verse of Māṇḍūkya declares through the phrase ‘tasyopavyākhyānaṃ’ (its manifestation, physical interpretation). After saying that ‘Om’ is all that is here, the verse quickly adds this phrase by way of clarification, implying that all that is here is only the manifestation of ‘Om’ and not ‘Om’ as such. The split presentation must be for the sake of force in expression. The said clarification applies to the rest of the verse also, though the phrase is not repeated again and again.

Contrary to this understanding of ‘upavyākhyānaṃ’, the view of conventional interpretation is this: the word indicates that what follows it is the explanation of what precedes it. This interpretation however reduces a profound philosophical revelation into a superficial utterance. It is awkward to think that the Upaniṣad seeks to explain the simple and ubiquitous phrase ‘idam sarvam’ in so many words as would constitute a major portion of the verse. Moreover, it is most unlikely that an Upaniṣad would include the past, future and transcendent entities within the ambit of the phrase ‘idam sarvam’.

Further, the syllable ‘Om’ is Ātmā itself as explicitly declared in verse 12 of this very Upaniṣad. Ātmā is pure existence, consciousness and bliss; it is purely immortal too. But, the phenomenal world represented by ‘idam sarvam’ has an element of mortality. Therefore, nothing in this world can be equated squarely to Ātmā. That is why the Upaniṣad adds an immediate clarification that the world is ‘upavyākhyānaṃ’ of ‘Om’. The conventional interpretation ignores this aspect.

Above all, the very subject-matter of this Upaniṣad is an explication of how the said ‘upavyākhyānaṃ’ (manifestation) of ‘Om’ works out.

The next verse too reinforces the present understanding of the import of ‘upavyākhyānaṃ’, by asserting that all this is Brahma only. We know that there is a subtle difference between Ātmā and Brahma, since Brahma has a mortal form also (vide verse 2.3.1 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka). Verse 2 is given below:

सर्वं ह्येतद्ब्रह्म अयमात्मा ब्रह्म सोഽयमात्मा चतुष्पात् || 2 ||

sarvaṃ hyetadbrahma ayamātmā brahma soഽyamātmā catuṣpāt. (2)

Word meaning: hi- certainly, indeed, of course; ayam- this, saḥ- he; catuṣpāt- four-footed. (Rest as in the first verse)

Verse meaning: Indeed, all this is Brahma. This Ātmā is Brahma. He, this Ātmā, is four-footed.

After stating in verse 1 that all this is manifestation of Om, here in verse 2 it is asserted that all this is indeed Brahma. The implication is that Brahma represents manifested Om. As stated above, verse 2.3.1 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka declares that Brahma has two forms, namely, mortal – immortal, perceptible – imperceptible and limited and unlimited. This underlines the idea that the world is only manifested Om and not Om as such. So, the assertion ‘all this is Brahma’ is quite veritable.

The next assertion is ‘this Ātmā is Brahma’ (Ayam Ātmā Brahma). ‘This Ātmā’ refers to which Ātmā? No previous reference is there regarding any Ātmā; the only reference is to Om, in the previous verse. In verse 12, this Om is declared as Ātmā. So, manifested Om is manifested Ātmā, which in essence is Ātmā with Prakṛti invoked. Therefore the declaration ‘this Ātmā is Brahma’ implies that the Ātmā with invoked Prakṛti is Brahma. We have been consistently holding that Ātmā and Brahma are not identical or synonymous, in view of the Upaniṣadic declaration that Brahma has two forms, unlike Ātmā which is purely immortal, imperceptible and unlimited. Had they been naturally and unassailably identical, the Upaniṣads need not have again and again made such assertive declarations on their mutual relationship.

The verse finally asserts that this Ātmā is four-footed. This implies that the shining of Ātmā has four distinct modes. In the ensuing verses we shall study these modes in detail. But before proceeding to the next verse, we may take note of an important fact about this verse. It is this: the declaration ‘This Ātmā is Brahma’ (Ayam Ātmā Brahma – अयमात्मा ब्रह्म) is one of the four Great Declarations (Mahāvākyas) of Upaniṣads. We have already seen two, one in Bṛhadāraṇyaka (1.4.10 – I am Brahma – अहं ब्रह्मास्मि – ahaṃ brahmāsmi) and the other in Chāndogya (6.8.7 – That is you – तत्त्वमसि – tattvamasi). This is the third; the fourth is yet to come.

In the next verse we see the first mode of shining of Ātmā. Let us see what the verse says:

जागरित स्थानो बहिःप्रज्ञः सप्ताङ्ग एकोनविंशतिमुखः स्थूलभुक् वैश्वानरः प्रथमः पादः || 3 ||

jāgarita sthāno bahiḥprajñaḥ saptāṅga ekonaviṃśatimukhaḥ sthūlabhuk vaiśvānaraḥ prathamaḥ pādaḥ. (3)

Word meaning: jāgarita- waking; sthāna- state, domain; prajñaḥ- knowing; bahiḥprajñaḥ- outward knowing (knowing oriented outwards); saptāṅga- with seven components; ekonaviṃśatimukhaḥ- with 19 mouths (mouth here means portals for conveying information); sthūlabhuk- consuming (knowing) the gross; apprehending/ cognising the forms tangible to senses; vaiśvānaraḥ- Vaiśvānaraḥ (it is the name of the state in question); prathamaḥ- first; pādaḥ- foot (mode).

Verse meaning: The first mode is Vaiśvānaraḥ. It is the shining of Ātmā in the waking state; the knowing process herein is outwardly oriented. This mode involves seven components and nineteen mouths. Those forms (objects) which are tangible to the senses are cognised in this mode.

We know that Ātmā is SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA and that it shines uniformly all over the universe. But, depending upon the structural characteristics and capabilities of the physical bodies of beings, this shining is expressed differently. Varying expressions of such shining, with reference to CHIT, are mentioned here as ‘modes’. The Upaniṣad says that modes are four in number (verse 2). The four modes relate to the four states which a being may pass through, namely, waking, dreaming, sleeping and transcendental. In this 3rd verse, the first mode is explained; the shining in the waking state is called Vaiśvānaraḥ and it relates to the knowing/expressing process when the being is awake. In the waking state all the sense organs and motor organs (organs of action) are active; they interact with the outside world, which fact is indicated in the verse by the phrase, ‘knowing is outwardly oriented’. ‘Knowing’ indicates the working of consciousness, which includes expressing also.

It is also stated that the process involves seven components and nineteen mouths. What are those seven components (aṅga) and nineteen mouths (mukhas)? Many interpreters imagine Vaiśvānaraḥ to be a being of human form, on account of the mention of aṅga which, they take as limb, and mukha which, to them is the organ for consuming food. Accordingly, they assume his body parts like head, eyes, breath, feet, etc. as the aṅga in question. But, this assumption is out of place, since the topic under discussion is the mode of shining of Ātmā in the waking state of beings and how the process of knowing consequently operates in that state; Vaiśvānaraḥ is only the name of that mode. Moreover, in the next verse, all these seven ‘limbs’ are present, but the name of the dreaming state is Taijasa to which this assigning of body parts is inappropriate. The conventional interpreters fail to get at the real import of Upaniṣadic postulations, due to their application of the lower texts of mythology and epics for understanding the higher texts of Upaniṣads. They interpret Upaniṣads on the basis of the popular stories of epics and mythology; Upaniṣads stand far higher than these stories and have to be understood by application of the reasoning faculty. It must be the Upaniṣadic declarations that should serve as a tool for properly understanding the message of these stories and not otherwise. Actually, the seven components of this mode are seven members participating in the process of knowing/expression (cognition/action). They are

1. Sense organs,
2. Organs of action (motor organs),
3. Prāṇas,
4. Antaḥkaraṇas,
5. Consciousness,
6. Pañcabhūtas, and
7. Sense objects.

Among these seven components involved in the knowing process, says the verse, there are nineteen mukhas. These mukhas are nothing but portals for receiving or disseminating information regarding either knowing or expression. Which are those mukhas? In the sense organs we have 8 such portals, namely, 2 eyes, 2 ears, 2 nostrils, tongue and skin. Motor organs provide 7 portals, namely, speech, 2 hands, 2 legs, reproductive organ and organ of excretion. These two come to a total of 15. To this, 4 Antaḥkaraṇas, which are the ultimate portals of reception and dissemination, are added, taking the total to 19. These are the nineteen mukhas.

In the waking state we cognise and also act upon objects/beings perceivable to our senses. Such objects/beings, existing in specific forms and names in the phenomenal world, are described as sthūla (gross); hence the word sthūlabhuk which simply means cognising of or acting upon gross objects/beings.

Before proceeding to the next verse, we may take note of one important fact: though Vaiśvānaraḥ is the name of waking state cognition, it vicariously represents the state wherein the knower indulges in worldly experiences. This is obviously the lowest state of enlightenment. In the same way, the second state Taijasa represents the middle level of enlightenment wherein one is withdrawn from the direct worldly experiences, but the impressions thereof still remain in him with varying degrees of influence. In the third state, Prājña, the knower is further elevated to the level, wherein only the consciousness of ‘I am’ remains. In the final state, all differentiations end, resulting in unification with pure Ātmā. We will see these in detail in the coming verses.

Now, we may move on to the fourth verse which says about Ātmā’s second mode of shining. The verse reads thus:

स्वप्नस्थानोഽन्तःप्रज्ञः सप्ताङ्ग एकोनविंशतिमुखः प्रविविक्तभुक् तैजसो द्वितीयः पादः || 4 ||

svapnasthānoഽntaḥprajñaḥ saptāṅga ekonaviṃśatimukhaḥ praviviktabhuk taijaso dvitīyaḥ pādaḥ. (4)

Word meaning: svapnasthānaḥ- dream state; antaḥprajñaḥ- knowing oriented inwards; praviviktabhuk- that which enjoys fine images; pravivikta- fine, detached; taijasa- Taijasa; dvitīyaḥ- second (for the rest, please see verse 3)

Verse meaning: The second mode is Taijasa. It is the shining of Ātmā in the dreaming state; the knowing process herein is inwardly oriented. This mode (too) involves seven components and nineteen mouths. In this mode, the forms (objects) cognised are fine and also detached from the senses (pravivikta).

The second mode differs from the first in two respects; one is the difference in orientation of the knowing process. In the first mode, the orientation is outwardly, whereas in the second, it is inwardly. Dreaming state is the initial state of sleep, wherein the sense organs and also the motor organs fade into inaction; but, Manas (mind), the involuntary component of Antaḥkaraṇa, is still active. In the waking state Manas processes signals received from the senses by accessing the stock of information in Chitta, under the reasoning control of Buddhi, and thus forms valid perceptions. These are obviously based on live sense signals of perceivable worldly objects and therefore are called sthūla. But, in the dreaming state, since the senses are inactive, no signals are received from them; Buddhi, being voluntary in nature, also becomes inactive. In this situation, the involuntary Manas accesses stored information from Chitta and arbitrarily constructs false perceptions. Most probably, such information must be the ones which it has last accessed during the waking state. Thus, dreams are the creation of the involuntary Manas without the direct involvement of either Buddhi or sense organs. This is why it is said that the knowing process in this mode is inwardly oriented.

Praśna Upaniṣad says that when all the sense organs merge into Manas and lie dormant there, we enjoy dreams wherein we see once again what has been seen before, hear what has been heard before and enjoy what has been enjoyed before. We also enjoy the unseen, unheard, unperceived and the unreal (Praśna Upaniṣad 4.2 & 4.5). Since the perceptions constructed by Manas in the dreaming state are indirect and unreal, they are called ‘pravivikta’. This constitutes the second difference between the two modes; in the first mode the perception was ‘sthūla’ whereas it is ‘pravivikta’ here.

In this mode also, all the seven aṅgas (components) and nineteen mukhas (mouths) are involved in the knowing/expressing process; the only difference is that their use is indirect and involuntary.

The third mode relates to shining of Ātmā in the deep sleep state. About it the fifth verse says thus:

यत्र सुप्तो न कंचन कामं कामयते न कंचन स्वप्नं पश्यति तत् सुषुप्तं | सुषुप्तस्थान एकीभूतः प्रज्ञानघन एवानन्दमयो ह्यानदभुक् चेतोमुखः प्राज्ञस्तृतीयः पादः || 5 ||

yatra supto na kaṃcana kāmaṃ kāmayate na kaṃcana svapnaṃ paśyati tat suṣuptaṃ. suṣuptasthāna ekībhūtaḥ prajñānaghana evānandamayo hyānadabhuk cetomukhaḥ prājñastṛtīyaḥ pādaḥ. (5)

Word meaning: yatra- when, where; supta- sleeping; na- not; kaṃcana- any; kāmaṃ- desire; kāmayate- wish for, seek for; svapnaṃ- dream; paśyati- see; tat- that; suṣuptaṃ- deep sleep; suṣuptasthāna- deep sleep state; ekībhūtaḥ- unified; prajñānaghana- (undifferentiated) mass of knowledge; eva- indeed, really; ānandamaya- blissful, consisting of bliss; hi- verily; ānadabhuk- enjoying bliss; cetomukhaḥ- having consciousness as mukha (mouth); prājñaḥ- Prājña, the knowing person; tṛtīyaḥ- third; pādaḥ- foot.

Verse meaning: The stage of sleep, wherein no desire is wished for and no dream is seen, is called deep sleep. In the deep sleep state, the mode of shining of Ātmā is known as Prājña (which indicates the knowing person). In this mode the entire knowledge is really unified into an undifferentiated mass; it is verily blissful (ānandamaya). So, bliss alone is enjoyed in this third mode and the mukha (mouth) therefor is consciousness.

When we are in deep sleep, we don’t see any dream; nor do we desire for anything; for, in this state we don’t experience any differentiation into sthūla or pravivkta, in respect of cognisance of objects. Actually, we know no objects; the entire knowledge is unified into an aggregate, a mass of knowledge without any differentiation. We only know ‘I am’ and enjoy only bliss since there is only ‘I’ and nothing other than ‘I’ to desire for or dread about. The one who knows ‘I am’ is known as ‘Prājña’ which veritably is the name of this third mode of shining of Ātmā. Since only bliss is there to enjoy, this mode is said to be blissful (ānandamaya). Neither mind nor any sense is used for enjoyment of bliss; it is enjoyed by the consciousness within.

In the first two modes, we have seen that nineteen mukhas are used for the knowing/expressing process. Here, none of these comes in the picture; only the inner consciousness is used; that is why it is stated that the mukha here is ‘cetas’ (चेतस् – consciousness). In fact, consciousness is the energy behind the whole knowing process undertaken by the senses and Antaḥkaraṇas. In this third mode, which is subtler than the previous ones, it has taken over the whole process since the senses, Manas and Buddhi are inactive.

The next verse says more about the ‘Prājña’ state. Please see the 6th verse below:

एष सर्वेश्वर एष सर्वज्ञ एषोन्तर्यामि एष योनिः सर्वस्य प्रभवाप्ययौ हि भूतानाम् || 6 ||

eṣa sarveśvara eṣa sarvajña eṣontaryāmi eṣa yoniḥ sarvasya prabhavāpyayau hi bhūtānām. (6)

Word meaning: eṣa- he; sarveśvara- lord of all; sarvajña- the omniscient; antaryāmi- inner controller; yoni- the cause; sarvasya- of all; prabhavāpyayau- both the origin and the end; hi- verily; bhūtānām- of the beings.

Verse meaning: He (Prājña) is the lord of all, the omniscient, the inner controller and the cause of all; he is both the origin and the end of all beings.

Bṛhadāraṇyaka verse 1.4.1 says thus: “In the beginning, there was only Ātmā in the mode of Puruṣa. He surveyed around; finding only himself, he said, ‘I am’….” Bṛhadāraṇyaka continues to say that the origin of all beings is this Puruṣa (1.4.4) and also that Ātmā is the inner controller of all, the omniscient, etc. (verses 3.7.3 to 3.7.23). Here, in verse 6 of Māṇḍūkya, the one who knows ‘I am’ is Prājña; obviously he is Puruṣa pervading the beings and therefore he is inner controller, omniscient and all, since Puruṣa is Ātmā himself.

The next verse presents the subtlest mode of shining of Ātmā. Let us see the verse below:
नान्तःप्रज्ञं न बहिःप्रज्ञं नोभयतःप्रज्ञं न प्रज्ञानघनं न प्रज्ञं नाप्रज्ञं अदृष्टमव्यवहार्यं अग्राह्यमलक्षणं अचिन्त्यमव्यपदेश्यं एकात्मप्रत्ययसारं प्रपञ्चोपशमं शान्तं शिवमद्वैतं चतुर्थं मन्यन्ते स आत्मा स विज्ञेयः || 7 ||

nāntaḥprajñaṃ na bahiḥprajñaṃ nobhayataḥprajñaṃ na prajñānaghanaṃ na prajñaṃ nāprajñaṃ adṛṣṭamavyavahāryaṃ agrāhyamalakṣaṇaṃ acintyamavyapadeśyaṃ ekātmapratyayasāraṃ prapañcopaśamaṃ śāntaṃ śivamadvaitaṃ caturthaṃ manyante sa ātmā sa vijñeyaḥ. (7)

Word meaning: na- not; antaḥprajña- inward knowing; bahiḥprajña- outward knowing; ubhayataḥprajña- bidirectional knowing; aprajña- absence of knowing, cessation of knowing; adṛṣṭaṃ- unseen; avyavahāryaṃ- not relatable, not amenable to be dealt with; agrāhyam- ungraspable; alakṣaṇaṃ- devoid of attributes; acintyam- unthinkable, beyond being thought of; avyapadeśyaṃ- that cannot be indicated, beyond being designated; ekātmapratyayasāraṃ- unified essence of all the states of consciousness; prapañcopaśamaṃ- cessation of all worldly differentiations; śāntaṃ- serene; śivam- blissful; advaitaṃ- without a second; caturthaṃ- fourth; manyante- considered; sa- he; ātmā- Ātmā; vijñeyaḥ- to be realised. (For other words see former verses)

Verse meaning: The fourth is Ātmā himself, in his subtlest mode of shining. He is beyond inward knowing, outward knowing and bidirectional knowing; he is neither knowing nor unknowing; he is not a mass of knowledge. He is not seen and not relatable; he is ungraspable, devoid of attributes and unthinkable; he cannot be indicated (like this is he). He is the unified essence of all the states of consciousness wherein all worldly differentiations cease; he is serene, blissful and without a second. He is to be realised.

The meaning is very clear. We are already aware of the various aspects of the nature of Ātmā described here; we have seen them in the previous articles of this series. However, a little elaboration is necessary on some points like ‘ekātmapratyayasāraṃ’. The word ekātmata indicates unification or unified state; pratyaya is consciousness and sāraṃ is essence. In the three verses 3, 4 and 5 we have seen the three modes of shining of Ātmā. If we eliminate the different characteristics of the knower in each of these modes, we are ushered into the concept of ‘ekātmapratyayasāraṃ’; this, in other words, is an abstraction of the three modes of shining. In the waking state the knower has all the senses in direct participation, in the dreaming state they are in indirect participation and in deep sleep state none of them is employed. Abstraction implies elimination of such differences; this process is indicated by the initial words like ‘nāntaḥprajñaṃ’ ‘na bahiḥprajñaṃ’, ‘na prajñaṃ’ ‘nāprajñaṃ’ etc. The nature of Ātmā emerging from this abstraction, representing only the essence, the consciousness is known as ‘ekātmapratyayasāraṃ’.

The difference between the third and fourth modes is this: in the third, Ātmā is in the Puruṣa mode, having invoked Prakṛti; but in the fourth, Prakṛti is revoked and Ātmā is in its serenest and subtlest form.

In the remaining verses, the Upaniṣad presents another view of the principle of Ātmā, based on syllables. It is said in verse 8 that the syllable ‘Om’ represents Ātmā; ‘Om’ is a combination of three sounds namely ‘अ’ (a- ‘ʌ’), उ (u- ‘u’) and म् (m- ‘m’). These three sounds actually represent the first three modes mentioned in verses 3, 4 and 5; we will see this in the ensuing verses. Let us see verse 8:

सोഽयमात्माध्यक्षरमोङ्कारोഽधिमात्रं पादा मात्रा मात्राश्च पादा अकार उकारो मकार इति || 8 ||

soഽyamātmādhyakṣaramoṅkāroഽdhimātraṃ pādā mātrā mātrāśca pādā akāra ukāro makāra iti. (8)

Word meaning: adhyakṣaram- based on syllables; adhimātraṃ- based on sounds, consisting of sounds; mātrā- sound; akāra- the sound ‘अ’ (a- ‘ʌ’); ukāra- the sound उ (u- ‘u’); makāra- the sound म् (‘m’); iti- thus. (For the rest, see preceding verses).

Verse meaning: Meaning of the verse is same as is given in the beginning of this paragraph.

Now, in the verses 9 to 11, the implication of each sound in the syllable ‘Om’ is explained. Please see verse 9 below:

जागरितस्थानो वैश्वानरोഽकारः प्रथमा मात्राप्तेरादिमत्वाद्वा आप्नोति ह वै सर्वान् कामान् आदिश्च भवति य एवं वेद || 9 ||

jāgaritasthāno vaiśvānaroഽkāraḥ prathamā mātrāpterādimatvādvā āpnoti ha vai sarvān kāmān ādiśca bhavati ya evaṃ veda. (9)

Word meaning: āpteḥ- on account of reaching out; ādimatvād- on account of being the first or preliminary; vā- and; āpnoti- reaches out; ha vai- verily; sarvān kāmān- all desires (kāmā); yaḥ- whoever, veda- knows, aware of. (Rest as in preceding verses).

Verse meaning: The waking state Vaiśvānara is assigned the first sound of ‘Om’ namely ‘akāra’; for, it is in this state that one reaches out to the outside world and it is the preliminary (primitive) state of his enlightenment. Further, the sound ‘अ’ also possesses these attributes; it is the first sound of ‘Om’ and the other sounds follow it. One whose awareness is limited to this state, remains in the initial stages of enlightenment and reaches out to all desires.

Further explanation seems unwarranted, as the verse meaning is sufficiently intelligible. We may now see the next verse:

स्वप्नस्थानस्तैजस उकारो द्वितीया मात्रा उत्कर्षादुभयत्वाद्वा उत्कर्षति ह वै ज्ञानसन्ततिं समानश्च भवति नास्याब्रह्मवित्कुले भवति य एवं वेद || 10 ||

svapnasthānastaijasa ukāro dvitīyā mātrā utkarṣādubhayatvādvā utkarṣati ha vai jñānasantatiṃ samānaśca bhavati nāsyābrahmavitkule bhavati ya evaṃ veda. (10)

Word meaning: dvitīyā- second; utkarṣād- on account of rising to something better, ubhayatvād- on account of being bidirectional; utkarṣati- raise; jñānasantati- flow of knowledge; samāna- being equally disposed to opposites; bhavati- becomes; na- not; asya- his; kule- in the family; abrahmavit- not knowing Brahma

Verse meaning: The dreaming state Taijasa is the second sound of ‘Om’, namely ‘ukāra’. It is so called on account of its rising to a better state/position and of being bidirectional. One who knows thus raises the flow of knowledge in him and becomes equally disposed to opposite experiences; in his family, no one will be ignorant of Brahma.

We have seen that the Taijasa marks a complete withdrawal of the senses from direct worldly experiences. But, the earlier impressions will remain without being completely erased of. However, to the point of view of enlightenment, this is a step forward; that is why it is stated to be ‘utkarṣa’ or improvement. Taijasa is the middle state between Vaiśvānara and Prājña; it connects them both. That is why it is bidirectional state or the state of ‘ubhayatva’. One who is in the Taijasa state may raise his knowledge level and disseminate it around; this will result in passing of the knowledge of Brahma to his family members also. Further, such a person will not be affected by dualities of the phenomenal world (he becomes samāna).

Like Taijasa, ‘ukāra’ also is bidirectional. It is the middle sound of ‘Om’; it therefore marks an upgradation from the earlier sound. Therefore, it fits well with the Taijasa state.

The next verse says about the final sound of ‘Om’. Let us see the verse:

सुषुप्तस्थानः प्राज्ञो मकारस्तृतीया मात्रा मितेरपीतेर्वा मिनोति ह वा इदं सर्वमपीतिश्च भवति य एवं वेद || 11 ||

suṣuptasthānaḥ prājño makārastṛtīyā mātrā miterapītervā minoti ha vā idaṃ sarvamapītiśca bhavati ya evaṃ veda. (11)

Word meaning: tṛtīya- third; miteḥ- on account of limit; apīteḥ- on account of being the final, ultimate; minoti- understand, perceive; idam sarvam- all this; apītiḥ- attaining to, dissolution, entering into. (Rest as above)

Verse meaning: The deep sleep state Prājña is assigned the third sound ‘makāra’ (म्) of the syllable ‘Om’. This is because it is the final limit which a being with body consciousness, can attain to. One, who knows this, verily understands all this here and dissolves into the underlying consciousness.

In ‘Om’, ‘makāra’ is the last sound and therefore the limit of ‘Om’; further, Prājña is the state which an embodied can attain to. This explains the propriety of their mutual association assigned in the verse.

Prājña is the state of Puruṣa, beyond which it is only serene Ātmā, without Prakṛti. The next verse describes its nature:

अमात्रश्चतुर्थोഽव्यवहार्यः प्रपञ्चोपशमः शिवोഽद्वैत एवमोङ्कार आत्मैव संविशत्यात्मनात्मानं य एवं वेद य एवं वेद || 12 ||

amātraścaturthovyavahāryaḥ prapañcopaśamaḥ śivodvaita evamoṅkāra ātmaiva saṃviśatyātmanātmānaṃ ya evaṃ veda ya evaṃ veda. (12)

Word meaning: amātra- without any sound differentiation; caturtha- fourth; avyavahārya- not relatable, not amenable to be dealt with; prapañcopaśama- cessation of all worldly differentiation; śiva- blissful; advaita- without a second; evam- thus; eva- verily; saṃviśati- enters in, attain to; ātmanā- by own self; ātmānaṃ- into the Ātmā; ya- who; veda- knows (repetition indicates end of the text).

Verse meaning: The fourth state of ‘Om’ is without any differentiation into its constituent sounds; it is not amenable to be dealt with in any manner and in it all worldly differentiations cease. It is blissful and without a second. This Oṅkāra is verily Ātmā. One who knows this enters the Ātmā himself.

The core idea in this verse is that the composite ‘Om’, devoid of differentiation into the constituent sounds mentioned in the three preceding verses, is the serene Ātmā. In the three states represented by the three sounds, Ātmā shines as Puruṣa with his Prakṛti invoked, with varied expressions. In the waking state the world as such is the object of experience and enjoyment. In the dreaming state the objects are the impressions received in the waking state; this state is marked by a departure from direct worldly experiences. In the deep sleep state, such impressions too are absent; only the consciousness of ‘I am’ remains. This is the state of identification with Puruṣa. In contrast, Ātmā in its purest form, with the Prakṛti revoked and involved, is represented by the fourth state where no differentiation of any kind exists. Thus, in these verses, we can see a progressive transformation from the mundane to the most enlightened state. The lesson to be learnt is that detachment from worldly entailments takes one to immortality.

In Praśna Upaniṣad, we will see the same issue of differentiation of ‘Om’ into the constituent sounds with their respective impacts and also its composite form, in the discussion on the fifth question.

Thus ends our study of Māṇḍūkya. Herein we have seen the different modes of shining of Ātmā in various states of awakening of beings; the more we are awakened to the phenomenal world, the less we are awakened to its immortal essence. Gīta presents this truth beautifully in verse 2.69 which says thus: ‘what is night to all beings, the self-controlled one (hermit) is awake therein; wherein all beings are awake, it is night to that hermit’.

“या निशा सर्वभूतानां तस्यां जागर्ति संयमी |
यस्यां जाग्रति भूतानि सा निशा पश्यतो मुनेः || 2.69 ||

yā niśā sarvabhūtānāṃ tasyāṃ jāgarti saṃyamī,
yasyāṃ jāgrati bhūtāni sā niśā paśyato muneḥ. (2.69)

The Upaniṣad further explains the syllable ‘Om’ which is the symbol for representing Ātmā and correlates the constituents of ‘Om’ with the modes of shining of Ātmā.

Readers can contact the author by email at: karthiksreedhar@gmail.com

“SATYAMEVA JAYATE (सत्यमेव जयते)” is the national motto of India. All Indians do know it; but, most of them may not know that this is part of an Upanishadic mantra. Yes, it forms part of verse 3.1.6 of Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad, which is the subject of discussion in this article; this is the seventh in the series ‘The Science of Upaniṣads’.

Muṇḍaka belongs to Atharva Veda and consists of six parts (Khaṇḍas) arranged in three sections which are known as Muṇḍaka(s). Each verse is numbered by the section, part and serial numbers; accordingly 1.2.3 indicates verse 3 of part 2 of Muṇḍaka 1.

As usual, this Upaniṣad also speaks about Ātmā and Brahma and also about the paths for attaining thereto; but the exposition herein is rather direct and precise. The postulations in the Upaniṣad are presented in the form of instructions imparted to one Śaunaka (शौनक), a great householder, by Sage Angiras. Śaunaka approaches and asks Angiras, “Lord, what having known does all this become known?” (Bhagavo, kasmin vijñāte sarvamidaṃ vijñātaṃ bhavati – भगवो, कस्मिन् विज्ञाते सर्वमिदं विज्ञातं भवति). It may be recalled that this is the same question which Sage Uddālaka Āruṇi asked his son Śvetaketu to test whether the son had got proper instruction (6.1.2 of Chāndogya Upaniṣad). Śvetaketu failed in the test, in spite of his being proficient in Vedas through twelve years of Veda studies. Implied therein is the declaration that mere knowledge of Vedas is not adequate to elevate man to higher levels of awareness culminating in immortality. We see the same sight here also; Angiras asserts that knowledge of Vedas and Vedangas (texts subsidiary to Vedas) is verily inferior to the knowledge by which the imperishable is known (1.1.4 & 1.1.5). Gīta verses 2.42, 2.45 and 2.46 reflect the same view. Particularly, Gīta verse 2.45 indicates that Vedas are concerned with physical aspects of life and in contrast, the desirable pursuit is detachment from them. Vedas here obviously refer to the Samhitas and other texts dealing with physical accomplishments (karmakāṇḍa).

Angiras follows up by explaining the superior knowledge that leads to attainment of immortality. His explication is about the transcendent entity, knowing which one attains immortality. Please see below what he says:

यत्तदद्रेश्यमग्राह्यमगोत्रमवर्णंमचक्षुःश्रोत्रं तदपाणिपादम् |
नित्यं विभुं सर्वगतं सुसूक्ष्मं तदव्ययं यद्भूतयोनिं परिपश्यन्ति धीराः || 1.1.6 ||

yattadadreśyamagrāhyamagotramavarṇamacakṣuḥśrotraṃ tadapāṇipādam;
nityaṃ vibhuṃ sarvagataṃ susūkṣmaṃ tadavyayaṃ yadbhūtayoniṃ paripaśyanti dhīrāḥ. (1.1.6)

Word meaning: yat tat- that which; adreśyam- invisible; agrāhyam- inconceivable; agotram- without lineage or origin; avarṇam- without Varṇa; acakṣuḥśrotraṃ- without eyes and ears; tat- that; apāṇipādam- without hands and feet; nityaṃ- eternal; vibhum- pervasive; sarvagatam- omni-present; susūkṣmam- extremely subtle; avyayam- undecaying; yat- which; bhūtayoniṃ- the source of beings; paripaśyanti- perceive, behold, see; dhīrāḥ- the wise, the intelligent.

Verse meaning: That which is invisible, inconceivable, without lineage, without Varṇa, without eyes and ears, without hands and feet, and that which is eternal, all-pervasive, omnipresent, extremely subtle and undecaying – that is what the wise behold as the source of all beings.

The entity described here is obviously transcendent; it is beyond the phenomenal existence, but at the same time the cause thereof. We have already seen these descriptions of the transcendent entity in the study of other Upaniṣads; see Bṛhadāraṇyaka 1.4.7 (unseen, unknown), 1.4.10 (origin); Chāndogya 3.14.3 (pervasive, subtle), 8.1.1 to 8.1.5 (pervasive, undecaying); Īśa 4, 5 & 8 (unseen, pervasive); Kaṭha 2.20 (subtle), 6.9 (unseen); etc. etc. All these descriptions relate to Ātmā. Here it is added that Ātmā is without lineage and Varṇa. Since it is the ultimate entity, it must be without lineage; it should not have descended from anything else. Kaṭha Upaniṣad says the same thing in 2.18 (नायं कुतश्चित् – nāyaṃ kutaścit); it is seen expressed in Gīta 2.20 also (नायं भूत्वा भवित – nāyaṃ bhūtvā bhavita). Now, what does the phrase ‘without Varṇa’ mean? Varṇa is not caste, as many usually understand; it indicates the four classes into which the entire mankind is distributed. The Varṇa classification is primarily based on the proportion of Guṇas occurring in individual beings and then on the Karmas done under the influence of such Guṇas. Guṇa is the inherent proclivity in beings, instrumental in performance of Karma; there are three Guṇas, namely, Sattva, Rajas & Tamas (सत्त्व, रजस्, तमस्). The Varṇa classification has nothing to do with castes. There are thousands of castes in India, which are confined within the believers of Hinduism; but Varṇas are only four in number and, as per the scriptures, cover the entire mankind. Moreover, there is no scriptural prescription classifying various castes into particular Varṇas. Details of Varṇa classification are available in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 1.4.11 to 1.4.14. Further clarifications can be seen in Gīta 4.13, 18.42 to 18.44, etc. Since Ātmā is beyond Guṇas and Karma, it is naturally without Varṇa; it is Avarṇa. In this context, it may be noted that ignorant people use the word ‘Avarṇa’ to indicate certain castes, which they consider lower in status; this only betrays their ignorance and foolishness.

How can physical beings come out from such an entity that is beyond physical attributes? The next three verses explain:

यथोर्णनाभिः सृजते गृह्णते च यथा पृथिव्यामोषधयः संभवन्ति |
यथा सतः पुरुषात् केशलोमानि तथाक्षरात्संभवतीह विश्वम् || 1.1.7 ||

yathorṇanābhiḥ sṛjate gṛhṇate ca yathā pṛthivyāmoṣadhayaḥ saṃbhavanti;
yathā sataḥ puruṣāt keśalomāni tathākṣarātsaṃbhavatīha viśvam. (1.1.7)

Word meaning: yathā- as, just like; ūrṇanābhi- spider; sṛjate- emits; gṛhṇate- take back; ca- and; pṛthivyām- on the earth; oṣadhayaḥ- herbs; saṃbhavanti- spring up; sataḥ puruṣāt – from living person; keśalomāni- hairs (on head and body); tathā- so, in that manner; akṣarāt- from the imperishable; saṃbhavati- arises, happens; iha- here, this; viśvam- universe.

Verse meaning: As a spider emits threads (and makes its web) and takes them back (at his will), as herbs spring up on earth and as hairs grow from living persons, so does the universe arise from the Imperishable (entity).

Here, it is the factor of comparison that is important. What is that? In the example of spider and thread, the spider is unaffected by the emission of thread and also outlives the thread; moreover, it also sustains the thread and also withdraws it at its will. In the other two cases also, the sources remain unaffected and outlive the things sprung up from them. In this way the verse relates the universe to the Imperishable using the said factors of comparison. Now verse 1.1.8:

तपसा चीयते ब्रह्म ततोഽन्नमभिजायते |
अन्नात् प्राणो मनः सत्यम् लोकाः कर्मसु चामृतम् || 1.1.8 ||

tapasā cīyate brahma tatoഽnnamabhijāyate
annāt prāṇo manaḥ satyam lokāḥ karmasu cāmṛtam. (1.1.8)

Word meaning: tapasā- by tapas; cīyate- augment, expand, flourish; brahma- Brahma (this is not the Lord of Creation among Trimurtis, who is really Brahmā in Sanskrit; Brahma here is what usually get translated as Brahman; we have opted to go by the Sanskrit word as such, like Ātmā); tataḥ- from that; annam- food; abhijāyate- be produced, arise; annāt- from food, next to food; prāṇaḥ- Prāṇa; manaḥ- Manas; satyam- Satyam; lokāḥ- worlds; karmasu- in Karma; ca- and; amṛtam- eternity, never ending.

Verse Meaning: Brahma expands through tapas, from which food is produced; it is followed by Prāṇa, Manas and the worlds, which are only Satyam; together with these arises unending Karma also.

We know that Brahma is Ātmā with Prakṛti invoked; in other words, it is the Puruṣa-Prakṛti combine, since Ātmā is Puruṣa when Prakṛti is invoked. It is stated here that Brahma expands and produces food. Puruṣa is Ātmā only and therefore, it is not subject to any change; so, in the said combine, the expansion and production of food must apply to Prakṛti only. Food here means the material used/consumed for emergence of beings. It is physical energy; so, expansion of Brahma implies release of physical energy by Prakṛti. Praśna Upaniṣad says in verse 1.4 that Rayi (matter or energy) and Prāṇa were produced through Tapas at first, from which all the beings came forth. Here we find the same thing. This Muṇḍaka verse also says that energy was released through Tapas. What is that Tapas? Tapas is heating; the next verse will tell us what kind of heating is intended here. Following the production of ‘food’, Prāṇa, Manas and the worlds arise. The word ‘annāt’ cannot be construed as ‘from food’; it only means that production of food is followed by coming into existence of Prāṇa and all. For, without physical energy (or matter), existence of Prāṇa and Manas is out of question; similarly, physical energy by itself cannot produce Prāṇa.

The verse also says that the worlds are Satyam. We are aware what Satyam means; it is Asat supported by Sat (Chāndogya 8.3.5). The worlds are verily that. Karma is an entailment of worldly life; so Karma never ends as long as worlds are there and hence the reference to unending Karma in this verse. Gīta also says that Guṇas of Prakṛti are the cause of Karma (3.27, 13.29 & 14.19); since differentiation of Brahma into names and forms occurs on upsetting the mutual proportion of the three Guṇas from their natural state of uniformity in Prakṛti, Karma is an essential part of the phenomenal world.

Now let us see the nature of Tapas mentioned:

यः सर्वज्ञः सर्वविद्यस्य ज्ञानमयं तपः |
तस्मादेतद्ब्रह्म नाम रुपमन्नं च जायते || 1.1.9 ||

yaḥ sarvajñaḥ sarvavidyasya jñānamayaṃ tapaḥ
tasmādetadbrahma nāma rupamannaṃ ca jāyate. (1.1.9)

Word meaning: yaḥ- who; sarvajñaḥ- omniscient; sarvavid- perceiving all; yasya- whose; jñānamayaṃ- consisting of knowledge; tapaḥ- Tapas; tasmāt- from him; etat- this; brahma- Brahma; nāma- name; rupam- form; annaṃ- food; ca- and; jāyate; come into existence.

Verse meaning: The one who is omniscient and all-perceiving and whose Tapas consists of knowledge only – from him have come into existence this Brahma, names and forms and also food.

We know who this omniscient and all-perceiving is – it is Ātmā (Māṇḍūkya 6). It is stated that his Tapas consists of knowledge only; it means that he exerts heat by knowledge. The cumulative implication is that his Tapas consists in intense exercise of his will. He willed intensely and as a result the Brahma, names and forms and also food came out. Bṛhadāraṇyaka says in verses 1.4.3 and 1.4.7 that Puruṣa along with his Prakṛti differentiated into names and forms.

Thus we come to the end of the first part of the first Muṇḍaka. In the second part, we see the futility of Yajñas consisting of inferior Karma. The opening verse of this part (1.2.1) says thus: ‘All that is here is Satyam (तदेतत् सत्यम् – tadetat satyam). The Karmas prescribed in the Mantras of holy texts are to be done by those who wish Satyam (ie. सत्यकामाः – satyakāmāḥ which indicate those who aspire for enjoyment of the phenomenal world). They will reach only the world attainable by good works (सुकृतस्य लोकः – sukṛtasya lokaḥ). In the next five verses the Upaniṣad deals with some aspects of such Karmas. At the end, it points out the futility of these Karmas in attaining to the ultimate principle, thus underlining the teachings in 1.1.4 and 1.1.5. See the verse below:

प्लवा ह्येते अदृढा यज्ञरूपा अष्टादशोक्तमवरं येषु कर्म |
एतच्छ्रेयो येഽभिनन्तन्ति मूढा जरामृत्युं ते पुनरेवापि यन्ति || 1.2.7 ||

plavā hyete adṛḍhā yajñarūpā aṣṭādaśoktamavaraṃ yeṣu karma;
etacchreyo yeഽbhinantanti mūḍhā jarāmṛtyuṃ te punarevāpi yanti. (1.2.7)

Word meaning: plava- that which floats, a boat or raft; hi- surely; adṛḍha- weak, frail; yajñarūpa- in the form of yajña; aṣṭādaśoktam- prescribed in the Eighteen (Purāṇas); avaraṃ- inferior; etat- this; śreyaḥ- auspiciousness, welfare, benefit; ye- who; abhinantanti- hail, rejoice at; mūḍhā- fools; jarāmṛtyuṃ- old age and death; te- they; punaḥ:- again; eva api- indeed; yanti- reach.

Verse meaning: Frail indeed are these rafts in the form of Yajñas wherein the Karmas are the inferior ones prescribed in the Eighteen (Purāṇas); the fools, who (continue to) hail them as śreyas, indeed reach old age and death again and again.

What is Yajña? It is sacrifice; a Karma in which something is wilfully given up, ultimately benefitting others. The Yajña which is done as a ritual by offering something in fire is only a namesake one. It is an inferior Yajña, as the Karma therein involves giving up of nominal things (offerings into fire) and the claim of benefits therefrom is not reasonably substantiated. Such Yajñas are done as per prescriptions in the eighteen Purāṇas. (Actually the verse uses the word ‘eighteen’ only. Purāṇas are eighteen in number and prescribe Yajñas; that is why the presumption of eighteen Purāṇas is made here). In contrast to these, a Yajña is seen mentioned in Gīta 3.14 wherein it is said that rain occurs due to Yajña. Ritualists go by the letters and do Yajña by offering ghee, etc into fire; they declare that this Yajña will bring rain. Actually, the Yajña mentioned in the Gīta verse is something else; it can be understood by observing the process of raining. In that Yajña Sun, Sea, Wind and Atmosphere are the participants. Sun gives heat and Sea gives water; as a result, water vapour is produced. Wind carries this vapour to the high regions of Atmosphere and the cooling provided by Atmosphere in that high regions precipitate rain. It is evident that the participants part with what they have, but do not obtain anything in return. This is the Yajña intended in the said Gīta verse. Look at India’s struggle for independence. Lakhs of people offered themselves for that noble cause, expecting nothing in return. They secured independence for all the Indians. Such are true Yajñas.

Now, returning to the Upaniṣadic verse under study, we may understand its implication thus: Through the Yajñas of inferior Karma, one would not be able to cross the sea of sorrows in this mortal world; these Yajña rafts are incapable of taking the performer beyond the mortal world of dualities. For attaining immortality one would require the superior Brahmavidya. Fools do not recognise this fact; they think themselves to be wise and learned, but wander about miserably like the blinds led by the blind (1.2.8 – this is same as Kaṭha 2.5).

The idea in 1.2.7 is further asserted in the following verse:

इष्टापूर्तं मन्यमाना वरिष्ठं नान्यच्छ्रेयो वेदयन्ते प्रमूढाः |
नाकस्य पृष्ठे ते सुकृतेഽनुभूत्वेमं लोकं हीनतरं वा विशन्ति || 1.2.10 ||

iṣṭāpūrtaṃ manyamānā variṣṭhaṃ nānyacchreyo vedayante pramūḍhāḥ;
nākasya pṛṣṭhe te sukṛteഽnubhūtvemaṃ lokaṃ hīnataraṃ vā viśanti. (1.2.10)

Word meaning: iṣṭāpūrtaṃ- credits of accomplished sacrificial rites; manyamānā- thinking; variṣṭhaṃ- supreme; na- not; anyat- others; śreyaḥ- beneficial, auspicious; vedayante- know; pramūḍhāḥ- fools; nākasya- heaven’s; pṛṣṭhe- in the regions; te- they; sukṛte- merits of good deeds; anubhūtvā- having enjoyed; imaṃ- this; lokaṃ- world; hīnataraṃ- inferior; vā- or; viśanti- enter.

Verse meaning: The fools who consider the credits of accomplished sacrificial rites as supreme and know nothing else as auspicious, do come again to this or even inferior world, after having enjoyed the merits of their good deeds.

The idea is that sacrificial rites do not provide permanent escape from the entanglements of the worldly life. Thus, the supremacy as well as uniqueness of Brahmavidya is once again asserted. In the remaining three verses of this part, the same topic is further explained. In verse 1.2.12 it is stated that a Brāhmaṇa (an aspirant for Brahmavidya) gets dispassionate towards the worlds attainable through Karmas and then approaches a Guru for guidance. Verse 1.2.13 directs that such Guru should tell the aspirant the truth of Brahmavidya by which the imperishable Puruṣa is known.

In the second Muṇḍaka, the first part is almost entirely devoted to assert that the universe emerged from immortal Puruṣa. The first verse takes us to the truth that verse 1.2.13 directs the Guru to impart. See the verse below:

तदेतत् सत्यं यथा सुदीप्तात् पावकाद्विस्फुलिङ्गाः सहस्रशः प्रभवन्ते सरूपाः |
तथाक्षराद्विविधाः सोम्य भावाः प्रजायन्ते तत्र चैवापि यन्ति || 2.1.1 ||

tadetat satyaṃ yathā sudīptāt pāvakādvisphuliṅgāḥ sahasraśaḥ prabhavante sarūpāḥ;
tathākṣarādvividhāḥ somya bhāvāḥ prajāyante tatra caivāpi yanti. (2.1.1)

Word meaning: tat- that; etat- this; satyam- truth (which verse 1.2.13 mentioned about); yathā- just as; sudīptāt pāvakāt- from blazing fire; visphuliṅgāḥ- sparks; sahasraśaḥ- in thousands; prabhavante- spring up, come forth, originate; sarūpāḥ- having shape or form; tathā- in the same way; akṣarāt- from the imperishable; vividhāḥ- of several kinds; somya- O, dear; bhāvāḥ- beings; prajāyante- be produced, come forth; tatra caiva- and there itself; āpi- also, again; yanti- go.

Verse meaning: That truth (which the previous verse mentioned about) is this: like sparks, having (various) shapes/forms, spring up in thousands from a blazing fire, several kinds of beings come forth from the Imperishable (Puruṣa) and also return to it.

We have seen the same idea in verse 1.1.7 above and in 2.1.20 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka. Here, it is further stated that the beings at the end merge with the Imperishable. Thus, it is declared that all beings emerge from and merge with the Imperishable entity, which is Puruṣa (Ātmā). This fact is seen asserted in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 2.4.12 & 2.4.13 and Chāndogya 6.9.1 to 6.9.4 & 6.10.1, 6.10.2. Gīta also presents the concept of origination and dissolution of beings, on the same lines in chapters 7 (verses 4 to 7), 8 (verses 18 & 19) and 9 (verses 4 to 10).

Verses 2.1.2 to 2.1.9 elaborate the concept further by enumerating various beings and asserting that they all originate from and dissolve into the Puruṣa. At the end, in verse 2.1.10 the matter is concluded and an additional declaration is made to the effect that those who know the Puruṣa cast off all the entanglements of ignorance here itself. See that verse below:

पुरुष एवेदं विश्वं कर्म तपो ब्रह्म परामृतम् |
एतद्यो वेद निहितं गुहायां सोഽविद्याग्रन्थिं विकिरतीह सोम्य || 2.1.10 ||

puruṣa evedaṃ viśvaṃ karma tapo brahma parāmṛtam;
etadyo veda nihitaṃ guhāyāṃ soഽvidyāgranthiṃ vikiratīha somya. (2.1.10)

Word meaning: puruṣa- Puruṣa; eva- verily; idaṃ- this; viśvaṃ- universe; karma- Karma; tapaḥ- Tapas; brahma- Brahma; parāmṛtam- immortal; etat- this; yo- who; veda- know; nihitaṃ- seated; guhāyāṃ- in the inner part; saḥ- he; avidyāgranthiṃ- knot of ignorance; vikirati- tear away; īha- here; somya- dear!

Verse meaning: This universe, the Karma, Tapas and the immortal Brahma are verily Puruṣa. Whoever recognizes this (Puruṣa) as seated in his heart, my dear, tears away the knots of ignorance here (itself).

The meaning is very clear and the intended conclusion is appropriate too. Now let us move on to part 2 of this Muṇḍaka. Verse 2.1.10 above stated that everything here is Puruṣa only and that he is seated in the subtlest regions of beings. In continuation, verse 2.2.1 says that he is to be known and the knowledge about him is the highest and the greatest knowledge for man. Further, in the next verse (2.2.2), it is reiterated that he being the support of all is the one to be known. How can he be known? This is the topic of next two verses 2.2.3 and 2.2.4. Verse 2.2.4 says thus:

प्रणवो धनुः शरो ह्यात्मा ब्रह्म तल्लक्ष्यमुच्यते |
अप्रमत्तेन वेद्धव्यं शरवत्तन्मयो भवेत् || 2.2.4 ||

praṇavo dhanuḥ śaro hyātmā brahma tallakṣyamucyate;
apramattena veddhavyaṃ śaravattanmayo bhavet. (2.2.4)

Word meaning: praṇavaḥ- the syllable ‘Om’; dhanuḥ- bow; śaraḥ- arrow; hi- indeed; Ātmā- the aspirant himself; tat- that; lakṣyam- goal; ucyate- is said; apramattena- carefully, veddhavyaṃ- to be penetrated, to be entered; śaravat- like the arrow; tanmayaḥ- identified with it; bhavet- should become.

Verse meaning: Be an arrow yourself and make ‘Om’ the bow and Brahma the goal. Then carefully enter into the goal like an arrow and become identified with it.

The implication is that ‘Om’ should be made a base and from that base, through unswerving meditation, get catapulted into the goal of Brahma and enter into it. Meditation on ‘Om’ is stressed in verse 2.2.6 also, as a means to accomplish well-being. The Ātmā, which is thus meditated upon as ‘Om’, manifests as the phenomenal world and is seated in the heart of all. Knowing him, the wise attains to immortality (2.2.7). When one succeeds in recognising Ātmā in all, in the high and low alike, he is freed from all bondages and ignorance (2.2.8); for, he overcomes all dualities of life then and thus acquires a composed state of mind.

In the next two verses, the Upaniṣad says about the pure, serene and undivided Brahma, which is the Brahma before undergoing the expansion mentioned in 1.1.8. This Brahma is positioned in the ultimate effulgent sheath of existence; it is the ultimate light (2.2.9). The sun, moon, stars and all are nothing to it; all of them actually shine because of it (2.2.10). (This verse is same as verse 5.15 of Kaṭha Upaniṣad). The implication is that the serene, undivided Brahma is the substratum from which the phenomenal world evolved.

In contrast to this description of the serene, undivided Brahma, verse 2.2.11 says about the Brahma after its expansion. It is stated that everything everywhere is Brahma only. See the verse:

ब्रह्मैवेदममृतं पुरस्ताद्ब्रह्म पश्चाद्ब्रह्म दक्षिणतश्चोत्तरेण|
अधश्चोर्ध्वं च प्रसृतं ब्रह्मैवेदं विश्वमिदं वरिष्ठम् || 2.2.11 ||

brahmaivedamamṛtaṃ purastādbrahma paścādbrahma dakṣiṇataścottareṇa; adhaścordhvaṃ ca prasṛtaṃ brahmaivedaṃ viśvamidaṃ variṣṭham. (2.2.11)

Word meaning: brahma- Brahma; eva- verily; idam- here; amṛtaṃ- immortal; purastāt- in the front; paścād- in the back, behind; dakṣiṇataścottareṇa- on right and on left; ca- and; adhaścordhvaṃ ca- below and above; prasṛtaṃ- wide-spread; idaṃ- this; viśvam- universe; variṣṭham- the greatest.

Verse meaning: Here, the immortal Brahma extends all over; it alone is in existence everywhere — in the front, in the back, on the right and on the left and also below and above. The universe is verily Brahma which is the greatest.

Thus, in verses 2.2.9 and 2.2.10 we have been told about the undifferentiated Brahma and in verse 2.2.11 about the Brahma differentiated into names and forms. In the next two verses, we see how both these states of Brahma exist in individual beings. We know that Brahma is Ātmā with Prakṛti invoked, in other words, the combine of Puruṣa and Prakṛti. In this combine, the agent of differentiation is evidently Prakṛti, since Puruṣa is changeless. We have seen in the ‘Science of Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad’ that the serene Puruṣa represents the deep-sleep state, wherein exists only the consciousness of ‘I am’ which is devoid of attributes. The deep-sleep state is the serene, effulgent state of — being ‘I am’ and it represents the experience provided by the undifferentiated state of Brahma mentioned above. Contrary to this, in the differentiated state of Brahma, the consciousness of ‘I am’ includes the individual physical body also, in each being. This is a constraint of individuality occurring due to differentiation into individuals which in turn is caused by the power of Prakṛti. Since Prakṛti is also known as Māyā, this constraint in consciousness is attributed to Māyā. It may be noted that the said constraint works on the base stock of serene, effulgent, pure ‘I am’ and that it works by veiling the base stock and producing the illusive image of body conscious ‘I am’. Both of them, the serene ‘I am’ and the illusive ‘I am’, are present in the same being at the same time, so long as the veil on base stock is not removed. The illusive ‘I am’ is experienced in the waking and dream states whereas the serene ‘I am’ is experienced in deep sleep state (Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad verses 3, 4, 5 & 6). The simultaneous existence of both the states of consciousness in the same body is the subject matter of the next two verses, 3.1.1 and 3.1.2. Let us see the verses.

द्वा सुपर्णा सयुजा सखाया समानं वृक्षम् परिषस्वजाते |
तयोरन्यः पिप्पलं स्वाद्वत्ति अनश्नन्नन्यो अभिचाकशीति || 3.1.1 ||

dvā suparṇā sayujā sakhāyā samānaṃ vṛkṣam pariṣasvajāte;
tayoranyaḥ pippalaṃ svādvatti anaśnannanyo abhicākaśīti. (3.1.1)

Word meaning: dvā- two; suparṇā- birds with beautiful wings; sayujā- united; sakhāyā- in friendship; samānaṃ- same; vṛkṣam- tree; pariṣasvajāte- embrace, occupy; tayoranyaḥ- one of the two; pippalaṃ- berry; svādu- delicious, tasty; atti-eats; anaśnan- not eating; anyaḥ- the other; abhicākaśīti- looks on.

Verse meaning: Two birds with beautiful wings occupy the same tree, united in friendship. Of them, one eats tasty berries (of the tree) while the other looks on without eating.

समाने वृक्षे पुरुषो निमग्नः अनीशया शोचति मुह्य्मानः |
जुष्टं यदा पश्यत्यन्यमीशं अस्यमहिमानमिति वीतशोकः || 3.1.2 ||

samāne vṛkṣe puruṣo nimagnaḥ anīśayā śocati muhymānaḥ;
juṣṭaṃ yadā paśyatyanyamīśaṃ asyamahimānamiti vītaśokaḥ. (3.1.2)

Word meaning: samāne vṛkṣe- on the same tree, in the same body; puruṣo- Puruṣa; nimagnaḥ- immersed or absorbed in, indulged in; anīśayā- in the absence of proper guidance, being powerless, helpless; śocati- grieves, be afflicted; muhymānaḥ- be confused, stupefied, deluded; juṣṭaṃ- inhabited, pervaded; yadā- when; paśyati- sees; anyam- the other; īśaṃ- the ruler; asya- his; mahimānam- glory; iti- then; vītaśokaḥ- free from grief.

Verse meaning: (Just as the berry eating bird mentioned above) the Puruṣa, who is deluded due to lack of proper guidance, gets indulged in the body where he is seated (samāne vṛkṣe nimagnaḥ) and becomes grieved. But, when he sees the other who is the ruler pervading the tree and also his glory, he becomes free from grief.

In this verse, two Puruṣas are mentioned just as two birds in the previous verse. One of the birds enjoys the berries that are products of the tree where it lives. In the same way one of the Puruṣas here enjoys the worldly life which his seat, the body, facilitates; the tree here represents the body and the berry is worldly life it facilitates. Resultantly, he is bonded to the worldly life and thus suffers all its afflictions. He is the Puruṣa of the expanded Brahma; he is usually referred to as Jīvātmā. The other Puruṣa is of the undivided, effulgent, serene Brahma; he is verily the serene Ātmā or Paramātmā. When the afflicted Puruṣa realises his true identity and gets identified with it, he becomes absolutely free. That is what the verse asserts.

These two verses together dispel all the doubts about ‘how the serene, effulgent Ātmā gets a consciousness of being a separate individual in a particular being’; they also clarify how on realising the true nature of Ātmā, the individual consciousness gets liberated from the infatuations of having a separate identity. We know that Ātmā is SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA, wherein SAT is that which sustains, CHIT is that which causes knowing and expressing and ĀNANDA is pure bliss that causes the urge to be happy. Ātmā has these three aspects inseparably integrated into a unity, like seven colours are inherent in sunlight. This Ātmā is an unbroken continuum pervading the entire universe, sustaining each and every being. In non-living beings the knowing faculty is absent and therefore the activity of CHIT is limited in them to mere expression; they express their physical attributes. This expression is confined to the physical boundaries of the being. In living beings, knowing faculty is present and therefore, both knowing and expressing occur in them. Knowing is done using the nerves through which consciousness (CHIT) extends its presence all over the body. In this case too, the activity of CHIT is confined within the physical limits of the being, since it is conditioned by the presence of nerves. The cumulative implication is that the aspect of CHIT in Ātmā gets expressed in beings within their physical limits only and not beyond that. This means that the continuity of expression of CHIT registers a break at the periphery of each individual being, beyond which the mode of expression changes in accordance with the adjoining being or element. For example, when a thing is submerged in water, within the physical periphery of the thing, CHIT expresses the attributes of that thing, beyond which the attributes of water get expressed. It is this change in mode of expression of CHIT that defines the individual identity of beings. A person knows himself and other individual beings, primarily on this basis. It needs higher knowledge to view individuals at a wider perspective and realise the identity as one with the whole.

In 3.1.2, the Ruler (Īśa) was mentioned. We have found that he is the effulgent Puruṣa or the Ātmā itself. Verse 3.1.3 says about realisation of this Ruler. See the verse below:

यदा पश्यः पश्यते रुक्मवर्णं कर्तारमीशं पुरुषं ब्रह्मयोनिम् |
तदा विद्वान् पुण्यपापे विधूय निरञ्जनः परमं साम्यमुपैति || 3.1.3 ||

yadā paśyaḥ paśyate rukmavarṇaṃ kartāramīśaṃ puruṣaṃ brahmayonim;
tadā vidvān puṇyapāpe vidhūya nirañjanaḥ paramaṃ sāmyamupaiti. (3.1.3)

Word meaning: yadā- when; paśyaḥ- the faculty of sight, vision; paśyate- sees; rukmavarṇaṃ- golden-coloured, effulgent; kartāram- the agent or energy of all deeds; īśaṃ- the Ruler; puruṣaṃ- Puruṣa; brahmayonim- the source of Brahma; tadā- then; vidvān- the learned; puṇyapāpe- the virtue and vice; vidhūya- having shaken off; nirañjanaḥ- spotless, passionless; paramaṃ- the supreme; sāmyam- sameness, unity; upaiti- attains.

Verse meaning: When the vision of a learned person grasps the effulgent Puruṣa who is the Ruler of all, the energy of all deeds and also the source of Brahma, then he, having shaken off both virtues and vices and having become passionless, attain unity with that Supreme Entity.

The verse simply says that when one knows the effulgent Puruṣa, who is verily the Ātmā, he becomes identified with it. We have already seen this idea in Kaṭha 4.15.

Verse 3.1.4 says that this Puruṣa is the Prāṇa in beings; the one who knows him gets detached from unnecessary dealings and rejoices in his own self. It is asserted in the next (3.1.5) that he is attained through Tapas, accurate knowledge and continence which are all pursued through the medium of Satyam. The word Satyam here indicates the physical faculties of a person. We know that Satyam is ASAT supported by SAT (8.3.5 of Chāndogya); we also know that SAT is that which never ceases to exist and ASAT is that which never comes to existence on its own (Gīta 2.16).

In line with the above, the next verse (3.1.6) asserts that only Satyam subsists, not Asat and that the path to divine existence is spread out by Satyam.

सत्यमेव जयते नानृतं सत्येन पन्था विततो देवयानः |
येनाक्रमन्त्यृषयो ह्याप्तकामा यत्र तत्सत्यस्य परमं निधानम् || 3.1.6 ||

satyameva jayate nānṛtaṃ satyena panthā vitato devayānaḥ;
yenākramantyṛṣayo hyāptakāmā yatra tatsatyasya paramaṃ nidhānam. (3.1.6)

Word meaning: satyam- Satyam; eva- alone; jayate- subsists, survives, gets sustained; na- not; anṛtaṃ- Asat; satyena- by Satyam; panthā- path; vitataḥ- spread out; devayānaḥ- divine carriage, divine existence; yena- by which; ākramanti- approach, go near to; ṛṣayaḥ- the Rṣis; hi- verily; āpta- overtaken; kāmā- Kāmas; yatra- where; tat- that; satyasya- of Satyam; paramaṃ- ultimate; nidhānam- abode.

Verse meaning: Satyam alone subsists, not Asat. The path to divine existence is spread out by means of Satyam; The Rṣis who have overtaken the Kāmas go by this path to that entity which is the ultimate abode of Satyam.

Divine existence here means the freedom from all bondages of worldly life. The path to this goal is spread out by Satyam. This implies that the efforts to attain divine existence are done through the physical faculties of beings, as mentioned above. The ultimate abode of Satyam is undoubtedly Ātmā, since Satyam originates when SAT (Ātmā) supports ASAT. So, what the verse means is that those who have given up all Kāmas make use of their body for doing sādhana to get established in the ultimate principle of Ātmā.

Satyam is evidently that which has SAT; therefore it will always survive. That is why “Satyameva jayate – Truth alone will triumph”. The phenomenal world is also Satyam. It never gets destroyed; it gets only transformed. It only merges into and emerges from Ātmā periodically (see the verses 1.1.7 and 2.1.1, together with the references thereunder, above; see also Gīta 2.12).

In the next three verses, the nature of the ultimate abode of Satyam, which is Ātmā, and the techniques to attain to it are discussed in detail. Verse 3.1.7 says that Ātmā is the grossest and at the same time the subtlest; it is everywhere, near and far and it is inside everyone. The concept of grossness and subtleness of Ātmā can be seen in Chāndogya 3.14.3, Kaṭha 2.20, Śvetāśvatara 3.9 & 3.20. Ātmā’s presence near and far is mentioned in Īśa Upaniṣad (5) and Gīta (13.15) also. In the next verse it is asserted that Ātmā is not graspable by the senses, but is attained by a spotless inner constitution (by viśuddhasattva). The verse is quoted below:

न चक्षुषा गृह्यते नापि वाचा नान्यैर्देवैस्तपसा कर्मणा वा |
ज्ञानप्रसादेन विशुद्धसत्त्वः ततस्तु तं पश्यते निष्कलं ध्यायमानः || 3.1.8 ||

na cakṣuṣā gṛhyate nāpi vācā nānyairdevaistapasā karmaṇā vā;
jñānaprasādena viśuddhasattvaḥ tatastu taṃ paśyate niṣkalaṃ dhyāyamānaḥ. (3.1.8)

Word meaning: na- not; cakṣuṣā- by eyes; gṛhyate- grasped; na api- not even; vācā- by speech; na anyaiḥ devaiḥ – not by other senses; tapasā- by Tapas; karmaṇā- by rituals; vā- or; jñānaprasādena- by purity or brightness of knowledge; viśuddhasattvaḥ- spotless inner constitution; tataḥ- then; tu- but; taṃ- him; paśyate- realises; niṣkalaṃ- undivided; dhyāyamānaḥ- the meditative (one who is engaged in meditation).

Verse meaning: The undivided Puruṣa (mentioned in the previous verse as present everywhere and residing in every being) is not graspable by eyes, speech or by any other senses, or by Tapas or rituals. But, He is realised by a meditative person upon his acquiring a spotless inner constitution through brightness of knowledge.

We have already seen who the undivided Puruṣa is. He is Ātmā. This verse says that Ātmā is not graspable by the senses and not attainable by Tapas or rituals; it is only reached by brightness of knowledge which enlightens and purifies the inner constitution of a meditative person. The inability of the senses to grasp Ātmā is seen repeatedly declared by Upaniṣads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka 3.7.23, Īśa 4, Kena 1.3, Kaṭha 6.9 & 6.12, Śvetāśvatara 4.17, 4.20). The purity of inner constitution mentioned in this verse is determined by what one is internally composed of, which in turn indicates the stock of convictions and ideas in his Chitta. You may know that Chitta is the exclusive storage chamber of all our knowledge and perceptions.

It may be seen in verse 3.1.9 that Ātmā reveals itself in a purified Chitta. See the verse below:

एषोഽणुरात्मा चेतसा वेदितव्यो यस्मिन् प्राणः पञ्चधा संविवेश |
प्राणैस्चित्तं सर्वमोतं प्रजानां यस्मिन् विशुद्धे विभवत्येष आत्मा || 3.1.9 ||

eṣoഽṇurātmā cetasā veditavyo yasmin prāṇaḥ pañcadhā saṃviveśa;
prāṇaiscittaṃ sarvamotaṃ prajānāṃ yasmin viśuddhe vibhavatyeṣa ātmā. (3.1.9)

Word meaning: eṣaḥ- This; aṇu- subtle; ātmā- Ātmā; cetasā- by consciousness; veditavyaḥ- able to be realised; yasmin- in which; prāṇaḥ- Prāṇa; pañcadhā- in five modes/parts; saṃviveśa- has entered; prāṇaiḥ- by Prāṇa; cittaṃ- Chitta; sarvam- all; otaṃ- activated, invoked, interwoven; prajānāṃ- of beings; yasmin- in which; viśuddhe- (in) purified; vibhavati- appears, reveals; eṣa- this; ātmā- Ātmā.

Verse meaning: This Ātmā is very subtle; it is realisable by the inner consciousness, in which Prāṇa has entered in five different modes/parts. The Chittas of all beings are sustained by Prāṇas; Ātmā reveals itself in purified Chittas.

We have seen above that Ātmā is not graspable by the senses. Therefore, it is to be realised by something beyond the senses; that something is consciousness which is the energy behind the senses. Hence the assertion that Ātmā is realisable only by consciousness. Nobody can invoke the inner consciousness at his will; it is to be done through a process and this is described by narrating the Consciousness – Prāṇa – Chitta relation in the verse. Consciousness is the cause of Prāṇa and Prāṇa works within the body in five different modes (we will see these modes in detail in the Praśna Upaniṣad). It is the Prāṇas that activate Chitta, one of the four Antaḥkaraṇas, which is the storage of all perceptions and knowledge. When harmful perceptions and knowledge that create bondage are eliminated from Chitta it becomes purified. It is in such a purified Chitta that the Ātmā reveals itself. This is the message of the verse.

Next verse (3.1.10) is the last verse of the first part of third Muṇḍaka. As a corollary to the previous verse, it says that a person with spotless inner constitution accomplishes all that he desires; therefore, those who desire such supreme power (bhūtikāma) have to honour (अर्चयेत्) the knowledge of Ātmā (आत्मज्ञं). The explanation is this: One who honours the knowledge of Ātmā will surely pursue such knowledge. He will finally attain to the ultimate principle of Ātmā and thus will attain the said power.

The first verse of the next part endorses this view. Please see the verse below:

स वेदैतत्परमं ब्रह्मधाम यत्र विश्वं निहितं भाति शुभ्रम् |
उपासते पुरुषं ये ह्यकामाः ते शुक्रमेतदतिवर्तन्ति धीराः || 3.2.1 ||

sa vedaitat paramaṃ brahmadhāma yatra viśvaṃ nihitaṃ bhāti śubhram;
upāsate puruṣaṃ ye hyakāmāḥ te śukrametadativartanti dhīrāḥ. (3.2.1)

Word meaning: sa- he (the one who pursues knowing the Ātmā as mentioned in verse 3.1.10); veda- knows; etat- that; paramaṃ- supreme; brahmadhāma- the abode of Brahma; yatra- where; viśvaṃ- universe; nihitaṃ- be fixed, be held; (ca- and); bhāti- shines, appears; śubhram- brightly, clearly; upāsate- worship, aspire for; puruṣaṃ- Puruṣa; ye- who; hi- surely; akāmāḥ- without Kāma; te- they; śukram- seed of animals (implies the worldly life); etat- this; ativartanti- transcend; dhīrāḥ- the wise.

Verse meaning: The one who is in pursuit of the knowledge of Ātmā knows (at the end) that supreme abode of Brahma, wherein the universe is held and does shine clearly. Those wise persons who having been devoid of Kāma, aspire to attain to Puruṣa, will surely transcend the worldly life.

Two things are correlated here; one, those who pursue knowledge attains to Ātmā; the second, those who are devoid of Kāma attains to Ātmā. When one acquires knowledge he gives up Kāma in consequence thereof. We have already seen in Kaṭha 6.14 that one attains immortality when all the Kāmas are eliminated from the heart.

In contrast to this, verse 3.2.2 says, those who always think about Kāma remain bonded for ever; only those, whose Kāmas are allayed or who are well-composed, get released from the bondage. The Upaniṣad goes on to say in the next verse (3.2.3) that only perseverance and dedication lead one to the ultimate goal. See the verse below:

नायमात्मा प्रवचनेन लभ्यः न मेधया न बहुना श्रुतेन |
यमेवेष वृणुते तेन लभ्यः तस्येष आत्मा विवृणुते तनूं स्वाम् || 3.2.3 |

nāyamātmā pravacanena labhyaḥ na medhayā na bahunā śrutena;
yameveṣa vṛṇute tena labhyaḥ tasyeṣa ātmā vivṛṇute tanūṃ svām. (3.2.3)

Word meaning: na- not; ayamātmā- this Ātmā; pravacanena- by oral intructions, labhyaḥ- attained; na medhayā- by mere intelligence; na bahunā śrutena- by much hearing (of the scriptures); yameva- Him (Ātmā) alone; eṣa- he (the seeker); vṛṇute- prefer; tena- by him; labhyaḥ- attained; tasya- to him; eṣa ātmā- this Ātmā; vivṛṇute- reveals; tanūṃ- body, form, real nature; svām- (His) own.

Verse meaning: This Ātmā is not attained by oral instructions, or by mere intelligence, or by much hearing of the scriptures. He is attained by one who prefers only Him; to such a person He reveals His real nature.

The same verse is seen in Kaṭha 2.23.

In the next four verses the issue of attainment to Ātmā is probed further, which culminates at the following conclusion.

यथा नद्यः स्यन्दमानाः समुद्रेഽस्तं गच्छन्ति नामरूपे विहाय |
तथा विद्वान् नामरुपाद्विमुक्तः परात्परं पुरुषमुपैति दिव्यम् || 3.2.8 ||

yathā nadyaḥ syandamānāḥ samudreഽstaṃ gacchanti nāmarūpe vihāya;
tathā vidvān nāmarupādvimuktaḥ parātparaṃ puruṣamupaiti divyam. (3.2.8)

Word meaning: yathā- as, in which manner; nadyaḥ- rivers; syandamānāḥ- flowing; samudre- in the ocean; astaṃ gacchanti- get dissolved; nāmarūpe- names and forms; vihāya- having relinquished; tathā- so, in that manner; vidvān- the learned; nāmarupād- from name and form; vimuktaḥ- being freed; parātparaṃ- the most supreme; puruṣam- Puruṣa; upaiti- attain to; divyam- effulgent.

Verse meaning: As the flowing rivers get dissolved in the ocean, having relinquished names and forms, so does the learned, being freed from name and form, attain to the most supreme effulgent Puruṣa.

The important message in this verse is that through knowledge one loses attachment to worldly life and thus becomes disinterested in his physical identity; this disinterest is the implication of the phrase ‘being freed from name and form’. (It is such freedom from name and form that is often termed as Mokṣa). We can see the same idea in verse 5.14 of Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad. Identity of the learned with Ātmā is asserted in verse 4.15 of Kaṭha Upaniṣad.

In the case of the learned, this merging with the ultimate happens while they are still in their physical body, since they become free from attachment to the body, while still holding the body. In the case of others, the attachment to body ends only when they lose their physical body; then only they attain to Ātmā, just as rivers terminate their flow in the ocean (as mentioned in Chāndogya 6.10.1 and 6.10.2).

While verse 3.2.8 says about attaining to Puruṣa, the next verse (3.2.9) says that he who knows Brahma becomes Brahma itself; shedding all the sorrow and vices and consequently being liberated from all bondages, he becomes immortal. We know that Brahma is Puruṣa-Prakṛti combine; so knowing Brahma is same as knowing Puruṣa. Verse 3.2.9 is therefore only an elaboration of the previous verse. See the verse below:

स यो ह वै तत्परमं ब्रह्म वेद ब्रह्मैव भवति नास्याब्रह्मवित्कुले भवति |
तरति शोकं तरति पाप्मानं गुहाग्रन्थिभ्यो विमुक्तोഽमृतो भवति || 3.2.9 ||

sa yo ha vai tatparamaṃ brahma veda brahmaiva bhavati nāsyābrahmavitkule bhavati; tarati śokaṃ tarati pāpmānaṃ guhāgranthibhyo vimuktoഽmṛto bhavati. (3.2.9)

Word meaning: sa- he; yo- who; ha vai- verily; tat- that; paramaṃ brahma- Supreme Brahma; veda- knows; brahma- Brahma; eva- surely; bhavati- becomes; na- not; asya- his; abrahmavit- one who does not know Brahma; kule- family, clan; bhavati- be, happens; tarati- overcomes; śokaṃ- sorrow; pāpmānaṃ- vices; guhāgranthibhyo- knots in the heart; vimukta- being free; amṛta- immortal; bhavati- becomes.

Verse meaning: He who knows that Supreme Brahma becomes Brahma itself; nobody will be there in his family who is ignorant of Brahma. He overcomes all sorrows and vices and having been free from all knots in the heart, he becomes immortal.

Māṇḍūkya says in verse 10 that one who raises his level of knowledge from the perceptions about phenomenal world overcomes the dualities of worldly experiences and becomes aware of Brahma; and because of him, following his footsteps, all his family members too become so aware. This is the idea expressed here in more definite terms.

The Upaniṣad ends with the instruction that this sacred Brahmavidya is to be imparted exclusively to those who are firmly devoted to the knowledge of Brahma.

Protection of cow is a dharma that can be performed by people of all communities in the world. It is a dharma that can be carried out by people of all the four varnas and other communities. In addition to our Hindus, Buddhists and Jainas too have been engaged in rearing and protecting the cow.

All animals other than the cow feed their milk to their young ones and protect them; that too for a short time. But in the case of the cow, she gives her milk to anyone and protects him till the end of her life.

With such considerations in view, it is said in Sastras that the cow should be protected at all costs. In all Vedic rituals it is the practice to say “गोब्राह्मणेभ्यः शुभमस्तु नित्यम् “ – “Gobrahmanebhyah Subhamastu Nityam”- “May cows and brahmanas be always happy”. Here the cow is mentioned first. If the cow is comfortable, the entire world will be happy. It is because all people gain comfort from the cow, worship of cow has been accorded importance. It is to be noted that the cow has abundance of milk such that after satisfying the need of her calf, she is able to feed other people with milk. No other animal has this trait.

When Jainas (Samanas) rose against Vedic religion and troubled people in a big way in Madurai, the minister Kulachiraiyar and queen Mangaiyarkkarasiyar of the Pandyan king prayed to Sri Tirugnanasambandhamurthy Swamigal to rescue the Vedic religion.

Huge philosophical debates ensued between Sri Tirugnanasambandhamurthy and the Jainas; the latter were defeated in argument. Then both parties vowed to write down on separate palm leaves that their religion alone was true and to float the palm leaves in the river Vaigai.

It was agreed that whichever leaf swims against the river current conveys the true religion. Sri Tirugnanasambandhar wrote the ‘Vazhthu Padigam’ (Song of Benediction) on his palm leaf; this song had as its first line ‘Vaazhga Andanar Vaanavar Aan inam’. His palm leaf swam against the water current for ten miles and reached the shore at a place called ‘Tiruvedagam’. The deity there is known as ‘Patrika Parameswara’; Patrika is leaf and as the leaf was washed ashore at that place, the Lord got that name. The script in the palm leaf says ‘Aaninam vaazhga’- ‘May the breed of cows live long’. As the cow has such distinction, it is necessary for everyone to worship her.

Though all communities follow dharmas in general, there is a special dharma enjoined on each community. As regards the dharmas to be performed by Vaisyas, Bhagavan Sri Krishna has mentioned them in a verse in Bhagavad Gita – “कृषिगौरक्ष्यवाणिज्यं वैश्यकर्म स्वभावजम्“- “Krishi Gourakshyavaanijyam vaisyakarma svabhavajam”. Bhagavan has prescribed three activities for Vaisyas.

The first one, ‘Krishi’ means agriculture, ploughing the field and raising crops for people’s consumption. The second is protection of cow. The third is trade and commerce and helping people through them. This would mean that Vaisya’s duty is to increase agricultural output and help living beings through that.

Vaisya should also take care of the cow with such nutrition that her milk is not only adequate for her calf, but is also available for the public. Similarly, another important duty of Vaisyas is engaging in trade, viz. to fetch articles like wheat, asafetida etc. from long distances, store them and help people by selling those articles to them. If a person has lakhs of rupees, but lives in a desert devoid of foodgrains, he cannot sustain himself just with his money. Similarly in a place where paddy is grown in plenty, one cannot live with just paddy alone without other articles. Hence trade consists in gathering articles from different places and selling them at a particular point useful to the public.

This is an important dharma for Vaisyas. They should not think that trading is sinful. If a brahmana leaves the mundane world and lives in a forest as a Sanyasi and then starts earning money, it is a sin. We should not think that traders engage in trade just for making profit. When there is hartal for a week and shops remain closed, people suffer very much without getting the necessary articles.

Hence trade is meant for common good and not for individual profit. Vaisyas should not conduct trade with profit in view, but with the thought that they are doing a duty ordained by Bhagavan and with prayerful attitude. I spoke on Go Puja today because tomorrow is the day of Go Puja and many Vaisyas are assembled here.

We should all perform dharma as instructed by Bhagavan Sri Krishna. People should also purchase articles from Asthika traders and not atheists. If you buy from atheists, the profit would be used for wrong purposes. Trading has been ordained as a special duty for Vaisyas. Hence Vaisyas should engage in the three activities ordained by Bhagavan, viz. agriculture, cow protection and trade, with devotion to Iswara and be the recipients of His Grace.

(Discourse delivered by Jagadguru Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Sankaracharya Swamigal of Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham in Sri Ekamreswara Temple Street in Gujaratipet, Chennai.)

Praśna Upaniṣad is one of the three Principal Upaniṣads belonging to Atharva Veda; we have already seen two, Māṇḍūkya and Muṇḍaka. Praśna in Sanskrit means question; this Upaniṣad is fully set in question-answer format and hence the name. In this Upaniṣad six seekers ask one question each and Ṛṣi Pippalāda (पिप्पलाद) answers them all. We discuss these answers in this article, which is the eighth in the series. Unique features of this Upaniṣad are, first, its precision in the postulations on the origin and existence of beings and second, its psycho-spiritual expositions on the power of human will power in attaining desired objectives.

Six seekers who approached Ṛṣi Pippalāda for instructions on the nature of Brahma were Kabandhī Kātyāyana, Bhārgava Vaidarbhi, Kauśalya Aśvalāyana, Gārgya Saurāyaṇī, Satyakāma Śaibya and Sukeśā Bhāradvāja. Pippalāda asked them to wait for one more year in penance, abstinence and faith and then ask questions as they like; he assured to answer them all, so far as his knowledge permits. Accordingly they came after one year and asked one question each, which the Ṛṣi duly answered. The verses in the Upaniṣad are identified by the question number and the verse number; for example, ‘2.4’ refers to verse four of the second question. Now let us see what the questions were and what the Ṛṣi said in reply.

The first question was asked by Kabandhī; he asked, “Esteemed Sir, whence are these beings brought forth?” (“भगवन्, कुतो ह वा इमाः प्रजाः प्रजायन्ते – Bhagavan, kuto ha vā imāḥ prajāḥ prajāyante?). Pippalāda answers thus:

“प्रजाकामो वै प्रजापतिः स तपोഽतप्यत स तपस्तप्त्वा स मिथुनमुत्पादयते, रयिं च प्राणं च इति, एतौ मे बहुधा प्रजाः करिष्यत इति || 1.4 ||

prajākāmo vai prajāpatiḥ sa tapoഽtapyata sa tapastaptvā sa mithunamutpādayate rayiṃ ca prāṇaṃ ca iti; etau me bahudhā prajāḥ kariṣyata iti. (1.4)

Word meaning: prajākāmaḥ- desirous of prajās (subjects, beings); vai- indeed; prajāpatiḥ- Prajāpati; sa- he; tapoഽtapyata- did Tapas; tapastaptvā- having done Tapas; mithunam- pair; utpādayate- produced; rayi- Rayi (physical energy or matter); ca- and; prāṇa- Prāṇa (the sustaining vital energy); iti- namely; etau- these two; me- to me; bahudhā- variously; prajāḥ kariṣyata- will produce prajās; iti- (thinking) that.

Verse meaning: Being desirous of prajās, Prajāpati did Tapas; through Tapas he produced the pair consisting of Rayi and Prāṇa. He wished that they would produce for him various prajās.

The verse says about the origin of beings. It is stated that beings were not directly produced by Prajāpati; instead, only a pair consisting of Rayi and Prāṇa, was produced by him. From this pair all beings evolved. Prajāpati produced the pair through Tapas, which is only intense and persevering exercise of will power. Prajāpati is the personified masculine form of the principle of Brahma. We know that Brahma is Puruṣa – Prakṛti combine, which according to Bṛhadāraṇyaka 1.4.4 and Muṇḍaka 1.1.8, is the source of all beings. In the pair produced, Rayi is physical energy or matter; it should evidently come from Prakṛti only. The other is Prāṇa which is the vital force that sustains the matter and therefore it should come from Puruṣa whose principle is SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA (Existence-Consciousness-Bliss) (vide also 3.3 below, wherein it is stated that Prāṇa originated from Ātmā). Being the sustaining force, Prāṇa must be a contribution of the SAT part of Puruṣa. In living beings which have a working respiratory system, Prāṇa facilitates the activity of CHIT (Consciousness) also. We will see its details in the discussions that follow under other questions.

It was an ancient practice of spiritual thinkers to relate spiritual lessons with objects and phenomena in the world, often personifying principles and attributes. Lord Brahmā is verily the personification of the principle of Brahma (Brahman in English). Lord Śiva represents auspiciousness achieved by elimination of Kāma. His third eye is the eye of knowledge; the opening of the third eye indicates attainment of knowledge, in the light of which all Kāma(s) are destroyed and peace and immortality are achieved. Following this practice, Prāṇa is related with sun and Rayi with moon in verse 1.5. It is also stated therein that everything here, whether gross or subtle, comprises of Rayi only. We see the same idea in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 1.4.3 (अयं आकाशः स्त्रिया पूर्यत – ayaṃ ākāśaḥ striyā pūryata; the ether is filled by woman- woman here indicates Prakṛti). We can find further elaboration of this idea in verses 1.6 to 1.8.

In a similar manner, Prajāpati is related with Year; Rayi and Prāṇa that emerged from him are presented as Dakṣiṇāyana and Uttarāyaṇa respectively. Dakṣiṇāyana is the southern movement of the sun from its northern-most point of reach and Uttarāyaṇa is the reverse northern movement to the northern-most point. Dakṣiṇāyana thus represents a descent and Uttarāyaṇa an ascent. Uttarāyaṇa is considered auspicious in India for the reason that the country gets maximum sunlight during the period; remember that sun represents Prāṇa as mentioned above and is therefore the symbol of sustenance and enlightenment. In the subsequent verses, Prajāpati is related with Month and also Day and Night (ahorātra); in the case of Month, Prāṇa is the white fortnight and Rayi the dark fortnight and in the other case, Day is Prāṇa and Night is Rayi. In all these, the message is that Prāṇa is brilliance and Rayi is the opposite.

Now let us come to the second question. Bhārgava Vaidarbhi is the questioner here. He wants to know: how many gods (Devas) support the prajās; which among these illumine (prakāśayati – प्रकाशयति) them and which of these is the most excellent one (variṣṭha – वरिष्ठ)? See Pippalāda’s answer below:

“आकाशो वा एष देवो वायुरग्निरापः पृथिवी वाङ्मनश्चक्षुः श्रोत्रम् च ते प्रकाश्याभिवदन्ति वयमेतद्बाणमवष्टभ्य विधारयामः” || 2.2 ||

ākāśo vā eṣa devo vāyuragnirāpaḥ pṛthivī vāṅmanaścakṣuḥ śrotram ca te prakāśyābhivadanti vayametadbāṇamavaṣṭabhya vidhārayāmaḥ (2.2)

Word meaning: ākāśaḥ- Ākāśa (ether); vā- verily; eṣa- this; devaḥ- Deva; vāyuḥ- Vāyu, air; agni- Agni, fire; āpaḥ- Jalam (water); pṛthivī- Bhūmi (earth); vāk – Vāk (speech); manaḥ- Manas; cakṣuḥ- eyes; śrotram- ears; ca- and; te- they; prakāśya- having illumined; abhivadanti- declare boastfully; vayam- we; etad- this; bāṇam- body; avaṣṭabhya- having seized, having entered; vidhārayāmaḥ- support, maintain.

Verse meaning: These Devas are Ākāśa, Vāyu, Agni, Jalam, Bhūmi (these are Panchabhūtas or the five basic elements constituting the universe) and also Vāk, Manas, eyes and ears. Having illumined the body, they boastfully declared thus: we maintain the body from within.

The Devas enumerated here boast that they maintain the body; but their claim is false. To know the truth, we have to read the next verse also. See it below:

“तान् वरिष्ठः प्राण उवाच मा मोहमापद्यथ अहमेव एतत् पञ्चधा आत्मानं प्रविभज्य एतद्बाणमवष्टभ्य विधारयामीति तेഽश्रद्दधाना बभूवुः” || 2.3 ||

tān variṣṭhaḥ prāṇa uvāca mā mohamāpadyatha ahameva etat pañcadhā ātmānaṃ pravibhajya etadbāṇamavaṣṭabhya vidhārayāmīti teഽśraddadhānā babhūvuḥ (2.3).

Word meaning: tān- to them; variṣṭhaḥ prāṇa- Chief Prāṇa; iti uvāca- said thus; mā- don’t; mohamāpadyatha- get deluded; aham- I; eva- alone; etat- this; pañcadhā- in five parts; ātmānaṃ pravibhajya- dividing myself; etadbāṇamavaṣṭabhya- having entered this body; vidhārayāmi- maintain; te- they; aśraddadhānā- unbelieving, doubting, incredulous; babhūvuḥ- became.

Verse meaning: To them the Chief Prāṇa said thus: ‘Don’t get deluded; I alone maintain this body, having entered it and dividing myself into five parts’. Hearing this, they became doubtful (they didn’t believe it).

Thus, in verses 2.2 and 2.3 two conflicting claims are presented, one by Prāṇa and the other by the remaining Devas. The ensuing portion of the answer (verses 2.4 to 2.13) is devoted to establish the superiority of Prāṇa. It is said in 2.4 that when Prāṇa prepared to leave the body, others also felt like leaving the body, just as bees following their queen. Thus Prāṇa showed them all that he was superior. Having the doubts dispelled they praised him a lot and requested him not to go out. They also requested him to protect them as a mother would protect her child. This description about establishing the superiority of Prāṇa and about other Devas praising him is seen in verses 5.7 to 5.15 of Chāndogya Upaniṣad also. The purpose of this description is only to assert that Prāṇa is the lone sustainer of the physical existence represented by Rayi.

The third question was asked by Kauśalya Aśvalāyana; he wanted to know: “Where does this Prāṇa originate from? How does he come to this body? How does he perform there, having divided himself (into five parts)? How does he go out? How does he support the body and also the world outside?”

Pippalāda answered thus:

आत्मन एष प्राणो जायते यथैषा पुरुषे छाया एतस्मिन् एतदाततं मनोकृतेन आयाति अस्मिन् शरीरे || 3.3 ||

ātmana eṣa prāṇo jāyate yathaiṣā puruṣe chāyā etasmin etadātataṃ manokṛtena āyāti asmin śarīre. (3.3)

Word meaning: ātmanaḥ- from Ātmā; eṣa prāṇo- this Prāṇa; jāyate- originate; yathā- just as; eṣā- this; etasmin puruṣe- on this person; chāyā- reflection; etad- that; ātataṃ- spread out; manokṛtena- by an act of mind, as willed, by thought; āyāti- comes; asmin śarīre- on this body.

Verse meaning: Prāṇa originates from Ātmā. On a person it spreads like a shadow. It comes to this body by the will (of Brahma).

It is said that Prāṇa originates from Ātmā. We saw in verse 1.4 that Prāṇa originated from Brahma. Further, we know that Brahma is Puruṣa-Prakṛti combine, wherein Puruṣa is Ātmā himself and Prakṛti is his power to manifest variously; for Ātmā is called Puruṣa when Prakṛti is invoked. Thus, the present statement is only a clarification of verse 1.4. The significance, however, is that it specifically relates Prāṇa with Puruṣa whereas Rayi is related with Prakṛti by default. In question 1, Prāṇa has been presented as the power that sustains the physical existence. Prāṇa is therefore to be understood as the sustaining power of Puruṣa. Secondly it is said that Prāṇa spreads all over the body like a shadow. This must be understood as pervading of the sustaining power of Puruṣa in the bodies.

In the next three verses how this shadow (Prāṇa) spreads in the body is described. But, before going to those verses, we may consider the statement in this verse that Prāṇa entered the body in exercise of will power. This exercising of will must have been made by Brahma as it was Brahma’s desire to have praja(s).

Now, we may see how Prāṇa distributes itself in the body. The Chief Prāṇa assigns different parts of the body among the other four other Prāṇas to manage, just like an emperor entrusts territories under him with various officials to govern (verse 3.4). Verses 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7 give us the details; see them, one by one, below:

पायूपस्थेഽपानं चक्षुः श्रोत्रे मुखनासिकाभ्यां प्राणः स्वयं प्रातिष्ठते मध्ये तु समानः एष ह्येतद् हुतमन्नं समं नयति तस्मादेताः सप्तार्चिषो भवन्ति || 3.5 ||

pāyūpastheഽpānaṃ cakṣuḥ śrotre mukhanāsikābhyāṃ prāṇaḥ svayaṃ prātiṣṭhate madhye tu samānaḥ eṣa hyetad hutamannaṃ samaṃ nayati tasmādetāḥ saptārciṣo bhavanti. (3.5)

Word meaning: pāyu- organ of excretion; upastha- organ of reproduction; apānaṃ- the Apāna; cakṣuḥ- eyes; śrotam- ears; mukha- mouth; nāsikā- nose; prāṇaḥ- Prāṇa; svayaṃ- himself; prātiṣṭhate- dwells, stays; madhye- in the middle; tu- but; samānaḥ- the Samāna; eṣa- he; hi- indeed, etad- this; hutam- digested; annaṃ- food; samaṃ- equally; nayati- distributes, leads; tasmāt- from it; etāḥ saptārciṣaḥ- these seven flames; bhavanti- originate; arise.

Verse meaning: In the organs of excretion and reproduction, the Apāna dwells, whereas the Chief Prāṇa himself is in charge of eyes, ears, mouth and nose. In the middle is Samāna which distributes the digested food equally to all parts of the body. It is because of this that the seven flames arise.

We have seen that Prāṇa exists in the body, having divided itself into five. These five divisions are the Chief Prāṇa, Apāna, Samāna, Vyāna and Udāna. These are only nominal, functional divisions of Prāṇa, each of which supports the existence of the part of the body under its charge. This verse says about the first three divisions. Apāna is in charge of the organs of excretion and reproduction. The Chief Prāṇa looks after eyes, ears, mouth and nose. Going by the description, Samāna must be in control of the cardio-vascular system. The seven flames arising out of the distribution of food are the two eyes, two ears, two nostrils and the mouth; these are called flames because they glow only when food is burnt (हुत) or digested and also they are instrumental in grasping things.

The next verse says about Vyāna. See the verse below:

हृदि ह्येष आत्मा अत्रैतदेकशतं नाडीनां तासां शतं शतं एकैकस्यां द्वासप्तति द्वासप्तति प्रतिशाखानाडीसहस्राणि भवन्त्यासु व्यानश्चरति || 3.6 ||

hṛdi hyeṣa ātmā atraitadekaśataṃ nāḍīnāṃ tāsāṃ śataṃ śataṃ ekaikasyāṃ dvāsaptati dvāsaptati pratiśākhānāḍīsahasrāṇi bhavantyāsu vyānaścarati (3.6)

Word meaning: hṛdi- in the Heart; hi- indeed; eṣa- this; ātmā- Ātmā; atra- there; etad- this; ekaśataṃ- one hundred and one; nāḍīnāṃ- nerves; tāsāṃ ekaikasyāṃ- to each of them; śataṃ śataṃ- hundred each; dvāsaptati dvāsaptati pratiśākhānāḍīsahasrāṇi- seventy two thousand branch nerves for each; bhavanti- exist; āsu- in them; vyāna- Vyāna; carati- moves.

Verse meaning: Ātmā is indeed in the Heart, wherein there are one hundred and one nerves; to each of them there are one hundred branch nerves. Each of these branch nerves has seventy two thousand further branches. Vyāna moves in these nerves and branches.

The fact of Ātmā being in the Heart (or in the inner-most chamber) is seen repeatedly asserted by the Upaniṣads (Chāndogya 3.14.3 & 8.3.3, Kaṭha 2.20, Muṇḍaka 3.1.7, Śvetāśvatara 3.11, 3.13 & 4.17) and also by Gīta (verses 13.17, 15.15 & 18.61). In the study of verse 8.3.3 of Chāndogya we have seen an explanation for the phrase ‘Ātmā is in the Heart’. It was required in that article to understand the phrase thus: ‘The subtlest physical form of a living being is a cell. It contains some physical features and also the coded information on genetic qualities and on hereditary traits. It also contains the energy of consciousness which reads and interprets this information and also motivates physical functions in furtherance thereof. This pure consciousness is the CHIT part of the Ātmā and the physical part wherein it is situated is the Heart. As the cell multiplies and grows into a full-fledged being, this Heart also develops into its matured form and along with it a net-work of nerves is also established, through which Ātmā pervades the entire physique of the being. Therefore, Ātmā is not exclusively located in the Heart, though it is stated, ‘Ātmā is in the Heart’. Even otherwise, the SAT part of Ātmā is already there pervading throughout the being, supporting its physical existence’.

The present verse gives an indication of what the Upaniṣads consider as Heart; it is where the nerves are connected. This according to human anatomy is Thalamus which is described as a switchboard of information. The word Thalamus has a Greek/Latin origin and it means inner chamber. The Sanskrit word ‘hṛd’ (हृद्) also means interior chest. So, when we say Ātmā is in the Heart, we should understand the Heart as indicating the inner chest where nerves are connected, which is Thalamus, not the heart of blood circulation. This Heart is thus the information exchange for receiving and disseminating information all over the body. The location of this Heart of consciousness or Thalamus is such that it is in line with the middle point between eye-brows (भ्रूमध्य – bhrūmadhya) and also with the upper-most point of nose (नासिकाग्र – nāsikāgra). (nāsikāgra is not the lower tip of the nose as many wrongly understand). The common point of bhrūmadhya and nāsikāgra is where we are required to concentrate our attention during meditation. This requirement is because of the realisation that the centre of consciousness, of the light within us, lies just behind it. Further, this point is apparently the location of the mythological ‘Third Eye’, the eye of knowledge or enlightenment. Opening of this eye means attainment of the true knowledge resulting in quelling all Kāma. This is what Lord Śiva did to Kāmadeva who is considered as the embodiment of Kāma; Śiva opened his third eye and then, Kāmadeva was reduced to ashes.

The presence of 101 nerves in the Heart is also seen mentioned in Chāndogya 8.6.6 and Kaṭha 6.16. Here it is stated that for each of these 101 nerves there are 100 branches, each of which in turn has 72000 sub-branches. The total number of nerves thus come to 72,72,00,000 or 727.2 million. Each nerve naturally consists of many nerve cells or neurons. According to modern Neurology the number of neurons in a human body is about 100 billion.

Imagine a small tree, uprooted and held upside down, with it root system facing upward. Then imagine the nervous system of a human being. Do you see any similarity between the two? Yes, they are similar in appearance. The tuft of nerves going upwards from Thalamus can be compared with the root system of the tree and the nerves spreading downwards to the body represent the trunk and branches of the tree. Please recall verse 6.1 of Kaṭha Upaniṣad wherein Brahma is visualised as such a tree.

Now, we may see what Udāna is. Let us go to verse 3.7.

अथैकयोर्ध्व उदानः पुण्येन पुण्यं लोकं नयति पापेन पापं उभाभ्यामेव मनुष्यलोकम् || 3.7 ||

athaikayordhva udānaḥ puṇyena puṇyaṃ lokaṃ nayati pāpena pāpaṃ ubhābhyāmeva manuṣyalokam. (3.7)

Word meaning: atha- now, ekayā- by or through one (of them); ūrdhva udānaḥ- the upwardly oriented Udāna; puṇyena- by good deeds; puṇyaṃ lokaṃ- virtuous world; nayati- leads to; pāpena- by bad deeds; pāpaṃ lokaṃ nayati – leads to evil world; ubhābhyām- by both; eva- indeed; manuṣyalokam- human world.

Verse meaning: The upwardly oriented Udāna works through one (of the hundred and one nerves). It leads to virtuous world if the deeds done are good and to evil world if the deeds are bad; if the deeds include both good and bad, then it leads to human world.

The implication is that one of the main nerves going upwards is controlled by Udāna; it is through this nerve that the information, which guides beings in accordance with their deeds, passes through. Therefore, it is evident that this nerve connects the Heart with the Antaḥkaraṇa; it is a hotline between the two, presumably in addition to those maintained by Vyāna. One ancillary indication in this verse is that the human world consists of good and bad; the other two worlds, the virtuous and the evil, are included in it and we experience either of the two depending upon our deeds. Good and bad deeds are distinguished by the nature of impact they make on the existence of the world; the deed that makes a positive impact is good, otherwise bad. In other words, a good deed is that which is in conformity with the eternal principle of SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA and the opposite is a bad one. This eternal principle is all-pervading and inviolable; therefore, any attempt to infringe it will meet with repression of such magnitude as would be sufficient to resist the infringement and make up for the damage already done. Therefore, when we do a bad deed, the first and the definite strike occurs within ourselves, making us weak. In contrast, when we do a good deed, we feel the strength within. More conclusive assertions in this regard can be seen in verse 3.10 below.

In the meanwhile, let us see what is said in verses 3.8 and 3.9. Following the practice of relating internal phenomena with outer world, it is stated in verse 3.8 that sun is the external Prāṇa and the Deva in the earth is the Apāna. In 3.9, Udāna is said to be the radiance (Tejas) of sun. The verse is here in full:

तेजो ह वा उदानः तस्मादुपशान्ततेजाः पुनर्भवमिन्द्रियैर्मनसि सम्पद्यमानैः || 3.9 ||

tejo ha vā udānaḥ tasmādupaśāntatejāḥ punarbhavamindriyairmanasi sampadyamānaiḥ. (3.9)

Word meaning: tejas- radiance (of sun), (sun)light; ha vā- indeed; udānaḥ- Udāna tasmāt- therefore; upaśāntatejāḥ- those with weakened radiance; punarbhavam- rebirth; indriyairmanasi sampadyamānaiḥ- owing to senses being united with mind.

Verse meaning: Udāna is the radiance of sun, the Prāṇa; therefore, those with weakened radiance meet with rebirth owing to their senses being united with mind.

If sun is Prāṇa, then sunlight is Udāna; those in whom Udāna is weak will meet with death, because their mind follows the senses. This death or subsequent rebirth is obviously not the physical one; it is, as indicated in the verse itself, the result of being carried away by the senses, which is verily capitulation to Kāma. This verse is effectively explained in Gīta verses 2.60 to 2.63. Verse 2.60 says that the tormenting senses forcibly carry away the mind of even a wise man in spite of his attempts to resist it. According to verse 2.61 one’s perception becomes stable only when he succeeds in controlling the senses. Verses 2.62 and 2.63 describe what happens otherwise; he meets with death. This is the message here.

Next verse carries a very important message; see the verse below:

यच्चित्तस्तेनैष प्राणमायाति प्राणस्तेजसा युक्तः सहात्मना यथा सङ्कल्पितं लोकं नयति || 3.10 ||

yaccittastenaiṣa prāṇamāyāti prāṇastejasā yuktaḥ sahātmanā yathā saṅkalpitaṃ lokaṃ nayati. (3.10)

Word meaning: yaccittaḥ- whatever is there in one’s Chitta; tena- by that; eṣa- he prāṇamāyāti- reaches Prāṇa; prāṇastejasā yuktaḥ – Prāṇa gets connected to (its) Tejas (which is Udāna); sahātmanā- (which) along with Ātmā (consciousness); nayati- leads to; yathā saṅkalpitaṃ lokaṃ – that world which he desires;.

Verse meaning: Whatever there is in one’s Chitta, with that he comes to Prāṇa. Prāṇa then gets connected to Udāna which, along with Ātmā, leads him to the world he desires.

We know what Chitta is; it is the store-house of all information both saved and inherited, all thoughts, perceptions, resolves and all. This verse says that we are led forward as dictated by and in conformity with what our Chitta contains. A person is defined by the contents of his Chitta; for, the stock in Chitta is the source from which a person draws the substance and inspiration for all what he does. The Chief Prāṇa is the one that senses the current thoughts in Chitta; we feel the reflections thereof by the variation in breath modulation. The Prāṇa then conveys what it sensed to Udāna which in turn activates the hotline leading to other components of Antaḥkaraṇa, namely Manas, Buddhi and Ahaṃkāra. As a result of this, the flow of consciousness, the real energy of life, and conveyance of information to these components is toned up, initiating sustained action by them. Manas, being involuntary, follows up with suitable action, even without our periodical interventions conveying specific dictates or consent. Thus, all our faculties are tuned up to function in furtherance of what the contents of Chitta demand. For example, if we love somebody seriously, then the Manas accesses all information from our Chitta as well as from outside which are in favour of such love; it also orients our actions to those directions and materials which would foster such love. Similarly, when we hate, the orientation changes to the opposite direction. Further, when we take a resolve to pursue the path of spiritual enlightenment, the Manas, without our specific instruction or active involvement at every turn, takes us to those sources and actions which further such pursuit. This is how one’s intense will takes him to accomplishment of the objectives. Such involuntary activity of Manas is known in ordinary parlance as the inner guidance. The same thing happens in the case of habitual actions also; our active participation is not needed in fulfilling them. For example, take the case of driving a vehicle; in the beginning we need to attend to each action, the acceleration, breaking, gear changing, etc. But when the details thereof are firmly registered in the Chitta, all these actions are got done without our active involvement; the Mind takes over it all. This in short is what the verse conveys.

In the place of this psycho-spiritual message, conventional interpretations opt to say that the verse is about leading Ātmā to various worlds after one’s death. This interpretation is foolish in the light of the consistent teachings of Upaniṣads which say that Ātmā is all-pervading and free from attachment and smear; these teachings therefore rule out the question of Ātmā moving from one place to another or retaining impressions of any actions to be carried over, after the loss of body. There is absolutely no hint in the verse making such interpretations tenable or warranted. The reason for such misinterpretations is the resort to mythology for understanding the sublime thoughts of the philosophy of Upaniṣads. This approach has over the ages made much havoc in conveying India’s ancient rational philosophy to the aspiring people all over the world in its true spirit. At the core of this unenviable situation is the fact that successive generations of disciples following a common guru simply disseminate the views and understandings of the guru without any change; they don’t burden themselves with the task of original thinking and independent evaluation. These disciples thus precipitate a standstill in terms of time and thought and tether generations of aspirants to the trite and flawed understanding of yore.

Now, let us come to the fourth question. It was the turn of Gārgya Saurāyaṇī. He asked, “Who among the Devas, in this body, sleep, who remains awake, who sees dreams, whose is happiness and on whom all are established?”

We have already seen above in verses 2.2 and 2.3, who the Devas in the body are. The question here is about their functions in the case of sleeping, waking and dreaming states and also in causing happiness and in supporting all. The answer of Pippalāda is given below in brief:

While we sleep, all the Devas in the body become merged into Manas; the meaning is that they all become dormant. Only the fires of Prāṇa are awake then. It is in this state that Manas causes dreams; it causes seeing what has been seen and not seen before, hearing what has been heard and not heard before, enjoying what has been enjoyed and not enjoyed before and experiencing what is real and unreal. When Udāna causes Manas also to become dormant and to be absorbed into pure consciousness, no more dreams are seen; as a result, the body enters into deep sleep state, wherein bliss is enjoyed. In this state, everything rests in the Ātmā – the Pancabhūtas, senses, sense-objects, Antaḥkaraṇas and all. The Ātmā with all these included is obviously known as Puruṣa; we have seen it already. This Puruṣa is the knowing Ātmā in all beings; he too is established in the pure, supreme, immortal Ātmā. He who knows it attains to it and becomes omniscient (verses 4.9 & 4.10).

These teachings in greater details can be seen in Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad.

The fifth question was asked by Satyakāma Śaibya; he wanted to know what world a man who meditates upon the syllable ‘Om’ until death would attain. Pippalāda replied thus:

एतद्वै सत्यकाम परं चापरं च ब्रह्म यदोंकारः तस्माद्विद्वान् एतेनैवायतनेन एकतरमन्वेति || 5.2 ||

etadvai satyakāma paraṃ cāparaṃ ca brahma yadoṃkāraḥ tasmādvidvān etenaivāyatanena ekataramanveti. (5.2)

Word meaning: etat- this; vai- verily; satyakāma- O, Satyakāma; paraṃ- superior; ca- and; aparaṃ- inferior; brahma- Brahma; yat- what; oṃkāraḥ- Om; tasmāt- therefore; vidvān- the learned; eva- surely; etena āyatanena – by this means; ekataram- one of the two; anveti- attain to.

Verse meaning: O, Satyakāma, this ‘Om’ is verily both superior and inferior Brahma. Therefore, the learned attains to either of the two by this means (ie. by meditating upon ‘Om”).

We already know the mutual relationship among Ātmā, Brahma and Om; we studied the details thereof in Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad. We have seen what each of the three constituent sounds of Om represent and what a seeker attains by knowing anyone of these sounds and by all together. This verse, together with the remaining verses in answer to the fifth question, presents the same idea in a manner which is rather less in precision and more in mythological coating.

What is referred to as superior Brahma is the undifferentiated Brahma and the inferior is differentiated.

The last question, the sixth one, was asked by Sukeśā Bhāradvāja; he wanted to know about the 16-part Puruṣa. The Sage answered thus:

‘इहैवान्तःशरीरे स पुरुषो यस्मिन् एताः षोडशकलाः प्रभवन्ति’ || 6.2 ||

‘ihaivāntaḥśarīre sa puruṣo yasmin etāḥ ṣoḍaśakalāḥ prabhavanti’. (6.2)

Word meaning: iha- here; eva- indeed; antaḥśarīre- within the body; saḥ puruṣaḥ – that Puruṣa; yasmin- in whom; etāḥ- these; ṣoḍaśakalāḥ- sixteen parts or kala(s); prabhavanti- originate.

Verse meaning: Here, within the body, indeed is that Puruṣa from whom these sixteen parts originate.

In verse 6.4, the Sage enumerates these 16 parts thus: Prāṇa, faith, ether, air, fire, water, earth, senses, mind, food, vigour, Tapas, Mantra, Karma, worlds and names. The idea is that these parts contributing to physical existence have their origin in the Puruṣa; so this Puruṣa is called ‘Puruṣa with sixteen parts’. It is further stated in verse 6.5 that these sixteen parts of the seer merge with the Puruṣa shedding their names and forms and become Puruṣa only, like rivers become verily the ocean, on merging therein.

Having all their doubts thus cleared, the six seekers honoured the Ṛṣi with high esteem and took leave of him. The Upaniṣad concludes by paying obeisance to the great Ṛṣis. When we part with this Upaniṣad, we should retain in mind what Ṛṣi Pippalāda said about the pair of Prāṇa and Rayi, from which the universe evolved; we should also bear in mind his words about how the contents of Chitta dictate and regulate the actions of beings.

Readers can contact the author by email at: karthiksreedhar@gmail.com

Taittirīya Upaniṣad consists of three discourses of Taittirīya Āraṇyaka which belongs to Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda. The focal areas in this Upaniṣad are rules of conduct and nature of Brahma. Popular instructions like ‘Satyaṃ vada, dharmaṃ cara; mātṛdevo bhava, pitṛdevo bhava; etc. are contributions of this Upaniṣad.

In this article which is ninth in the series ‘The Science of Upaniṣads’, we study the explications on these two topics, namely, the nature of Brahma and the instructions on the rules of conduct. The text of this Upaniṣad is divided into three chapters (Valli) which are again divided into passages (Anuvāka) and verses. A verse is identified by the chapter number, passage, number and verse number. For example, third verse of second passage in the first chapter is written as 1.2.3.

As you know, we are concerned with only the rational thoughts which bear consistency with the spiritual philosophy universally propounded in the Upaniṣads. This takes us directly to verse 1.6.1 which contains a very decisive exposition of the seating of the Puruṣa in the inner Heart. See the extract from the verse below:

स य एषोഽन्तर्हृदय आकाशः तस्मिन्नयं पुरुषो मनोमयः अमृतो हिरण्मयः अन्तरेण तालुके य एष स्तन इवावलंबते सेन्द्रयोनिः यत्रासौ केशान्तो विवर्तते व्यपोह्य शीर्षकपाले …… || 1.6.1 ||

sa ya eṣontarhṛdaya ākāśaḥ tasminnayaṃ puruṣo manomayaḥ amṛto hiraṇmayaḥ antareṇa tāluke ya eṣa stana ivāvalaṃbate sendrayoniḥ yatrāsau keśānto vivartate vyapohya śīrṣakapāle …….. (1.6.1)

Word meaning: sa ya eṣa ākāśaḥ – that which is the Ākāśaḥ (one of the five fundamental elements); antarhṛdaya- antarhṛdaye – within the Heart; tasmin- in it; ayaṃ- that; puruṣaḥ- Puruṣa; manomayaḥ- consisting of mind (not material), incorporeal; amṛtaḥ- immortal; hiraṇmayaḥ- of golden effulgence; antareṇa- within, amidst, in the middle of; tāluke– palate; ya eṣa stana avalaṃbate – that which hangs down as a nipple (Uvula); iva- like, resembling; sa- it; indrayoniḥ- seat of Indra or seat of the Supreme Being; yatra- where; asau- that; keśānto- tuft of hair; vivartate- expand, come forth from; vyapohya- keeping off, not crossing; śīrṣakapāle- in the skull.

Verse meaning: That Puruṣa is in the Ākāśaḥ within the Heart; he is incorporeal, immortal and effulgent. That which resembles ‘palate with Uvula hanging down in the middle’ is the seat of the Supreme Being; from this seat a tuft of hairs comes forth and extends to the skull (without crossing it).

We are familiar with the assertion that Puruṣa is in the Heart and that he is incorporeal, immortal and effulgent. The second part explains what that Heart looks like. The seat of the Supreme Being (or the Heart) is compared here with ‘palate with hanging Uvula’. We have previously seen that the Heart depicted as the seat of Puruṣa is not the heart of blood circulation, but the Thalamus. The comparison made here fits very well with Thalamus which consists of two symmetrical halves joined in the middle by a median. This median is the Uvula in the comparison and the two halves are two parts of the palate on either side of Uvula. Further, the tuft of hairs spreading out to the skull indicates ‘nerve fibres projecting out to cerebral cortex in all directions’. We have already studied about a main nerve originating from the Heart, going upwards and spreading in all directions (vide 8.6.6 of Chāndogya, 6.16 of Kaṭha, 3.7 of Praśna and 2.1.19 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka). Now, this verse of Taittirīya takes our understanding of the inner Heart to further precision.

Let us now move on to the most popular part of this Upaniṣad. It is in the eleventh Anuvāka of the first chapter. Please see the first verse of the Anuvāka below:

वेदमनूच्य आचार्योഽन्तेवासिनं अनुशास्ति | सत्यं वद | धर्मं चर | स्वाध्यायान्मा प्रमदः | आचार्याय प्रियं धनमाहृत्य प्रजातन्तुं मा व्यवच्छेत्सीः | सत्यान्न प्रमदितव्यम् | धर्मान्न प्रमदितव्यम् | कुशलान्न प्रमदितव्यम् | भूत्यै न प्रमदितव्यम् | स्वाध्यायप्रवचनाभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यं || 1.11.1 ||

vedamanūcya ācāryoഽntevāsinaṃ anuśāsti. satyaṃ vada. dharmaṃ cara. svādhyāyānmā pramadaḥ. acāryāya priyaṃ hanamāhṛtya prajātantuṃ mā vyavacchetsīḥ. satyānna pramaditavyam. dharmānna pramaditavyam, kuśalānna pramaditavyam. bhūtyai na pramaditavyam. svādhyāyapravacanābhyāṃ na pramaditavyam (1.11.1).

Word meaning: vedamanūcya= well-versed in Veda (Scriptures); ācārya- Ācārya, teacher, preceptor; antevāsinaṃ- pupil (who dwells with the teacher for education); anuśāsti- instructs; satyaṃ- Satyam; vada- speak; dharmaṃ- Dharma; cara- adhere to, observe; svādhyāyāt= from self-study (of Scriptures); mā- not; pramadaḥ- stay away; acāryāya- for the teacher; priyaṃ- as desired; dhanam- wealth; āhṛtya- having fetched; prajātantuṃ- succession of progeny; mā- not; vyavacchetsīḥ- cut off; satyāt- from Satyam; na- not; pramaditavyam- to be swerved; dharmāt- from Dharma; kuśalāt- from welfare; bhūtyai- from wealth; svādhyāyapravacanābhyāṃ- from self-study and teaching.

Verse meaning: The Ācārya, who is well-versed in Scriptures, instructs his pupil, “Speak Satyam (that which has Sat – truth), adhere to Dharma, never stay away from self-study (of Scriptures). After securing and presenting the money desired by the Ācārya, engage in ensuring continuance of your race (don’t swerve from having wife and children). Never swerve from Satyam, from Dharma, from welfare, from wealth and also from self-study and teaching”.

The entire Anuvāka, 1.11, constitutes instructions given by the Ācārya to his pupils, probably at the conclusion of the studies; this must therefore be a convocation address. The Ācārya instructs his pupils about how their future conduct should be. The first instruction is to speak Satyam and follow Dharma. We have already seen what Satyam is. It is that which is supported by Sat; this is why Satyam survives (Satyameva jayate – Muṇḍaka 3.1.6). Along with its own survival, Satyam saves its speaker and the person who stands by it from ruin; for, such persons get enriched in internal strength which is an essential factor for successful life. The others naturally face degeneration. Accordingly, Satyam is regarded as an act of Dharma.

What is Dharma? The word Dharma indicates that which maintains, preserves, supports, upholds or possesses. So, any Karma that caters to maintaining, preserving or supporting the universe as a whole is referred to as Dharma. We know that the ultimate energy that maintains, preserves and supports the universe is the Ātmā. So, Dharma must be that Karma which conforms to the principle of Ātmā, namely SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA. Consequently, Dharma is that Karma that ensures existence, knowing & expression and happiness. A blanket classification of Karmas into Dharma and Adharma is not advisable. We cannot classify Karmas like charity, speaking the truth, respecting elders, abstention from stealing, killing and other violence, etc. as Dharma; similarly, karmas like killing, wounding, saying lies etc. cannot be classified as Adharma. Sometimes, these Karmas may happen to be Dharma. For example, a soldier’s killing of an enemy is Dharma and a doctor operating upon a patient to save his life is also an act of Dharma, though it involves causing pain. A golden rule in this regard is this: ‘whatever we do should bring good to the world’.

In Gīta verses 1.28 to 1.46 we see Arjuna lamenting about infringement of various kinds of Dharma that, he fears, he would commit in the impending war. Citing this apprehension as a reason, this mighty, formidable warrior decides to withdraw from war. The throne and the pleasures attendant to it lure him no more, if securing them involves killing of own relatives, Gurus and patriarchs. Instead of killing them, he prefers to be killed by them, even while being unarmed. Such is his concern for protection of various types of Dharma of his understanding, according to which, killing of relatives, Gurus and patriarchs is an absolute breach of Dharma. Arjuna fears that divine retribution for breach of Dharma would befall on him, if, in the course of war, he kills them. But Kṛṣṇa advises him against this understanding of Dharma. Expostulating against all such misunderstandings, Kṛṣṇa exhorts Arjuna to comply with only his instructions, which would assuredly ward off all feared retributions (Gīta 18.66). And what was the core of Kṛṣṇa’s instructions? One must do Karma for the good of the world, without any attachment, without any selfish designs and without any concern about the nature of the result. A Karma that brings good to the world is what Dharma really is. We cannot therefore blindly brand some acts as Dharma and others as Adharma; all depends upon the context and purpose.

Another important advice is that one should not refrain from having a family, from earning wealth and from securing welfare. Renouncing these things is not seen a virtue here; even the Ācārya wants money. The instruction here is that one may engage in these things, but while doing so, he should not breach Dharma and Satyam.

Now, let us move on to the next verse:

देवपितृकार्याभ्यां न प्रमदितव्यम् | मातृदेवो भव | पितृदेवो भव | अचार्यदेवो भव | अतिथिदेवो भव | यान्यनवद्यानि कर्माणि | तानि सेवितव्यानि | नो इतराणि | यान्यस्माकं सुचरितानि | तानि त्वयोपास्यानि | नो इतराणि || 1.11.2 ||

devapitṛkāryābhyāṃ na pramaditavyam. mātṛdevo bhava. pitṛdevo bhava. ācāryadevo bhava. atithidevo bhava. yānyanavadyāni karmāṇi. tāni sevitavyāni. no itarāṇi. yānyasmākaṃ sucaritāni. tāni tvayopāsyāni. no itarāṇi (1.11.2).

Word meaning: devapitṛkāryābhyāṃ- from the duties to devas and parents; na- not; pramaditavyam- to be swerved; mātṛ- mother; devaḥ- deva; bhava- be (to you); pitṛ- father; ācārya- Ācārya, preceptor; atithi- guest, visitor (to your residence); yānyanavadyāni- whatever faultless, unobjectionable; karmāṇi- Karmas; tāni- they; sevitavyāni- to be practised; no- na u – not on the other hand; itarāṇi- others; yāni- whatever; asmākaṃ- our, ours; sucaritāni- good, virtuous; tāni- they; tvayā- by you; upāsyāni- to be resorted to, to be observed.

Verse meaning: Don’t swerve away from the duties to devas and parents. To you, may your mother, father, Ācārya and guest be devas. You must do only unobjectionable Karmas, not others. You follow only the virtuous acts of ours, not vicious ones.

Devas here are to be understood as beings bestowed with effulgence by way of their superior characteristics and qualities which command adoration. The present advice is to see mother, father, teacher and guest as devas. Another important instruction is that one should not follow his teacher blindly; he has to discern the good deeds of the teacher and consider only such deeds as a model to follow, not others.

The next two verses are connected with each other, in content, and therefore we shall study them together.

ये के चास्मच्छ्रेयांसो ब्राह्मणाः | तेषाम् त्वया आसनेन प्रश्वसितव्यम् | श्रद्धया देयम् | अश्रद्धयाഽदेयम् | श्रिया देयम् | ह्रिया देयम् | भिया देयम् | संविदा देयम् | अथ यदि ते कर्मविचिकित्सा वा | वृत्तविचिकित्सा वा स्यात् || 1.11.3 ||

ye ke cāsmacchreyāṃso brāhmaṇāḥ. teṣām tvayā āsanena praśvasitavyam. śraddhayā deyam. aśraddhayāഽdeyam. śriyā deyam. hriyā deyam. bhiyā deyam. saṃvidā deyam. atha yadi te karmavicikitsā vā. vṛttavicikitsā vā syāt (1.11.3).

Word meaning: ye ke ca – whoever; asmat- from among us; śreyāṃsaḥ- superior, more distinguished; brāhmaṇāḥ- brāhmaṇas, learned ones, scholars; teṣām- of them; tvayā- by you; āsanena- by (giving) seats; praśvasitavyam- breath to be recovered, fatigue to be removed; śraddhayā- willingly; deyam- to be given (by way of charity); aśraddhayā adeyam – not to be given unwillingly; śriyā- according to wealth; hriyā- with modesty, without any pretension; bhiyā- with fear (of being recognised), secretly, in privacy; saṃvidā- from own possession or acquisition; atha- now; yadi- if; te- to you; karmavicikitsā- doubt or uncertainty about Karma; vā- or; vṛttavicikitsā- doubt about conduct; syāt- be

Verse meaning: You should provide for relaxation of the more distinguished scholars among us, by offering seats (and other services). When you give in charity, give it willingly, not unwillingly; give according to your wealth; give without any pretension; give in privacy and from own acquisition. If any doubt about Karma or conduct occurs to you, then, (continued in the next verse)

ये तत्र ब्राह्मणाः संमर्शिनः | युक्ता आयुक्ताः | अलूक्षा धर्मकामाः स्युः | यथा ते तत्र वर्तेरन् | तथा तत्र वर्तेथाः | अथाभ्याख्यातेषु | ये तत्र ब्राह्मणाः संमर्शिनः | युक्ता आयुक्ताः | अलूक्षा धर्मकामाः स्युः | यथा ते तत्र वर्तेरन् | तथा तत्र वर्तेथाः | एष आदेशः | एष उपदेशः | एषा वेदोपनिषत् | एतदनुशासनम् | एवमुपासितव्यम् | एवमु चैतदुपास्यम् || 1.11.4 ||

ye tatra brāhmaṇāḥ saṃmarśinaḥ. yuktā āyuktāḥ. alūkṣā dharmakāmāḥ syuḥ. yathā te tatra varteran. tathā tatra vartethāḥ. athābhyākhyāteṣu. ye tatra brāhmaṇāḥ saṃmarśinaḥ. yuktā āyuktāḥ. alūkṣā dharmakāmāḥ syuḥ. yathā te tatra varteran. tathā tatra vartethāḥ. eṣa ādeśaḥ. eṣa upadeśaḥ. eṣā vedopaniṣat. etadanuśāsanam. evamupāsitavyam. evamu caitadupāsyam (1.11.4).

Word meaning: ye- whoever; tatra- there; brāhmaṇāḥ- learned men; saṃmarśinaḥ- able to judge; yuktā- experienced; āyuktāḥ- connected (with the matter); alūkṣā- soft (easily approachable); dharmakāmāḥ- inclined to follow Dharma, with a disposition for it; syuḥ- be; yathā- how; te- they; tatra- there (in that context) varteran- behave, act; tathā- so, in that manner; tatra- there; vartethāḥ- behave, act; atha- now; abhyākhyāteṣu- in the case of false accusations; eṣa- this; ādeśaḥ- instruction; upadeśaḥ- advice; vedopaniṣat- secret of Vedas; etad- this; anuśāsanam- command; evam- thus; upāsitavyam- to be attended to; to be complied with; evam- thus; u- verily; ca- and; upāsyam- to be performed.

Verse meaning: (continued from the previous verse), If some learned men who are able to judge, experienced and well-versed in the matter and who are easily approachable and with a disposition to follow Dharma are present there, you must act in the way they act in similar context. In the case of false accusations also, you must act in the same way as those learned men act. This is the advice, the secret of Vedas; this is the command and it should be complied with. Perform your acts in accordance with this.

Here, in verses 1.11.3 & 1.11.4, the Ācārya continues his advices on the rules of conduct that his pupils should follow in life. Firstly, he impresses upon them to respect and serve learned men of esteem. Then, he tells them how Dāna (दान – giving charity) should be performed. When we give, we have to do it willingly and according to our resources. We should not give with a sense of self-importance or with much publicity. Most importantly, we should give from what we have earned by our own efforts. These are very important instructions on charity, which are very relevant in all ages. We have, in the present world, umpteen instances wherein charity is given with much fanfare, from ill-earned wealth which is secured from extraneous sources and for publicising own importance. There are also instances wherein the spending on publicity far exceeds the actual value of charity. In this context, we may also refer to Gīta verses 17.20 to 17.22 wherein Dāna is classified in accordance with the Guṇas.

Here ends the first chapter which is predominantly instructive in content; it is verily called Śikṣāvalli (शिक्षावल्लि). The next chapter is similarly known as Brahmavalli, as it deals with the nature of Brahma. Let us go to the first verse of the second chapter. The first part of this verse contains a very important declaration which stands out from the rest; therefore we take it separately.

ब्रह्मविदाप्नोति परम् | तदेषाഽभ्युक्ता | सत्यं ज्ञानं अनन्तं ब्रह्म | यो वेद निहितं गुहायां परमे व्योमन् | सोഽश्नुते सर्वान् कामान् सह ब्रह्मणा विपश्चितेति …… || 2.1.1 ||

brahmavidāpnoti param. tadeṣāഽbhyuktā. satyaṃ jñānaṃ anantaṃ brahma. yo veda nihitaṃ guhāyāṃ parame vyoman. soഽśnute sarvān kāmān saha brahmaṇā vipaściteti. (2.1.1)

Word meaning: brahmavid- the knower of Brahma; āpnoti- attains to; param- the Ultimate; tad- that; eṣā- thus; abhyuktā- declared with reference to; satyaṃ- Satyam; jñānaṃ- knowledge; anantaṃ- infinity; brahma- Brahma; yo- whoever; veda- knows; nihitaṃ- situated, located; parame guhāyāṃ- deep in the cavity; in the depth of the Heart; vyoman- space; saḥ- he; aśnute- realises, attains; sarvān- all; kāmān-desires; saha brahmaṇā – along with Brahma; vipaścit- the Omniscient; eti- approaches.

Verse meaning: The knower of Brahma attains to the Ultimate. With reference to that, it is declared thus: ‘Brahma is Satyam-Jñānam-Anantam. He, who knows the space situated in the depth of the Heart, attains all his desires; further, along with Brahma, he attains to the Omniscient.

In Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad 3.2.9 we saw that he who knows Brahma becomes Brahma itself. Here it is stated that the knower of Brahma attains to the Ultimate. We know that the Ultimate is Ātmā; so the assertion here is that the knower of Brahma finally attains to Ātmā. The differentiation between the two is explained in the remaining part. It is stated that Brahma is Satyam-Jñānam-Anantam; in contrast to this, Ātmā is SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA. There is a clear difference between the two. Satyam is the manifested form or derivative of SAT, as it is Asat sustained by SAT; similarly, Jñānam (Knowledge) is that of CHIT, since it is the result of application of CHIT; and Anandam (infinity) is that of ĀNANDA vide Chāndogya 7.23.1 & 7.24.1. Chāndogya also says in 8.1.1 that in the Brahmapura (city of Brahma, which is simply the Heart) there is a small lotus chamber wherein there is a small space (Ākāśa) and what is there in that Ākāśa is to be sought after and realised. The expression ‘what is there in that Ākāśa’ evidently refers to
Ātmā. This small Ākāśa is such that all that exists outside exists therein too, obviously in an abstract form. This inner Ākāśa and the contents thereof constitute the Brahma. One who knows this Ākāśa goes further and attains to the Ultimate within; thus, after knowing Brahma he proceeds further and attains to the Omniscient Ātmā. This is what Taittirīya says here. We can see the same idea in Gīta 18.54 & 18.55, which assert that one who is absorbed in Brahma gets endowed with devotion to me (Ātmā) and with that devotion he knows Ātmā and finally attains to Ātmā.

Please note the statement that whatever exists in the outer Ākāśa exists in the inner Ākāśa also; it is further stated that the entity within the inner Ākāśa (which is nothing but Ātmā) is to be sought after and realised. The first statement implies the uninterrupted pervasion of the Ākāśa inside and outside, while the second implies the same of Ātmā.

In the remaining part of the verse, it is stated that from this Ātmā originated all the five basic elements, from which food got generated; from food, man came into being. The phrase, ‘from this Ātmā’ is a sufficient indication that what was implied by ‘Ultimate’ and ‘Omniscient’ in the first part was definitely the Ātmā. Now see the second part of the verse below:

तस्माद्वा एतस्मादात्मन आकाशः संभूतः | आकाशाद्वायुः | वायोरग्निः | अग्नेरापः | अद्भ्यः पृथिवी | पृथिव्या ओषधयः | ओषधीभ्योഽन्नम् | अन्नात् पुरुषः | स वा एष पुरुषोഽन्नरसमयः ……. || 2.1.1 ||

tasmādvā etasmādātmana ākāśaḥ saṃbhūtaḥ; ākāśādvāyuḥ; vāyoragniḥ; agnerāpaḥ; adbhyaḥ pṛthivī; pṛthivyā oṣadhayaḥ; oṣadhībhyoഽnnam; annāt puruṣaḥ; sa vā eṣa puruṣoഽnnarasamayaḥ ……. (2.1.1)

Word meaning: tasmādvā etasmātdātmanaḥ – surely, from that which is this Ātmā; ākāśaḥ- Ākāśa; saṃbhūtaḥ- arose; ākāśāt- from Ākāśa; vāyuḥ- Vāyu; vāyoḥ- from Vāyu; agniḥ- Agni; agneḥ- from Agni; āpaḥ- Water; adbhyaḥ- from Water; pṛthivī- Earth; pṛthivyā- from Earth; oṣadhayaḥ- herbs; oṣadhībhyaḥ- from herbs; annam- food; annāt- from food; puruṣaḥ- Man; sa vā eṣa puruṣo – surely, he who is this Man; annarasamayaḥ- consists of the essence of food.

Verse meaning: Surely, from this Ātmā arose the Ākāśa; then Vāyu arose from Ākāśa and subsequently Agni from Vāyu, Water from Agni, Earth from Water, herbs from Earth and food from herbs. From food arose Man and so, Man consists of the essence of food (Annarasamaya).

The idea is very clear; no further explanation is deemed necessary. But, the expression ‘From food arose Man’ requires some clarification to facilitate easy grasping of the true spirit of the verse. It implies the nature of physical constitution of Man. The subtlest form of physical constitution of Man is admittedly a cell and it is from this he evolves into a full-fledged being. This subtlest form and also the grossest form that evolves therefrom are essence of food only; the change in physical constitution, from the subtle to the gross, comes from the essence of food consumed. This is why it is said that Man arose from food.

The cumulative assertion of this verse is that Annarasamaya Puruṣa is the physical expression of Ātmā. In the next verse (2.1.2) it is declared that within this physical expression, there is another expression of Ātmā, subtler than the physical and it is verily Prāṇamaya (consisting of Prāṇa). It pervades the Annarasamaya Puruṣa and therefore, it is Puruṣavidha (in the form of Puruṣa). See the relevant portion of the verse below:

… तस्माद्वा एतस्मादन्नरसमयात् | अन्योഽन्तर आत्मा प्राणमयः | तेनैष पूर्णः | स वा एष पुरुषविध एव ….|| 2.1.2||

… tasmādvā etasmādannarasamayāt; anyaoഽntara ātmā prāṇamayaḥ; tenaiṣa pūrṇaḥ; sa vā eṣa puruṣavidha eva

Word meaning: tasmādvā etasmādannarasamayāt – from this Annarasamaya (expression); anyaḥ- other; antara- within (subtler); ātmā- Ātmā; prāṇamayaḥ- Prāṇamaya (expression); tena- by that (by Prāṇamaya); eṣa- this (Annarasamaya); pūrṇaḥ- is filled; sa- he; vā- indeed; eṣa- this; puruṣavidha- in the form of Puruṣa; eva- surely.

Verse meaning: As given above.

It is a fact that Prāṇa acts in all parts of the body constituting Annarasamaya and is subtler in nature. Therefore Prāṇamaya expression is said to pervade Annarasamaya.

Within the Prāṇamaya expression, there exists another expression of Ātmā called Monomaya (consisting of Manas), vide verse 2.1.3. Manomaya expression is said to be subtler than Prāṇamaya, since Manas acts within the domain provided by the activity of Prāṇa. Similarly, since the activity of Manas extends to the entire expanse of that domain, Manomaya expression is said to pervade Prāṇamaya. For the same reason Manomaya expression too is Puruṣavidha (in the form of Puruṣa) like Prāṇamaya expression. The next verse (2.1.4) similarly says about Vijñānamaya expression of Ātmā, which is subtler than Manomaya; it pervades the Manomaya expression and is consequently Puruṣavidha too. Vijñāna refers to Buddhi which is said to hold the rein of Manas. Obviously, its activity extends to areas where Manas is active. These are the reasons why Vijñānamaya expression is said to pervade Manomaya and to be subtler than it.

The subtlest expression of Ātmā is Ānandamaya (consisting of Ānanda or Bliss) (verse 2.1.5). It pervades the Vijñānamaya expression. Consequently, this expression too is declared to be Puruṣavidha. Buddhi is the discerning faculty of Antaḥkaraṇa; without it, pain or pleasure is not distinguished. That means Ānanda is experienced, exclusively where Buddhi is active. It is for this reason that Ānandamaya expression is said to pervade Vijñānamaya; for the same reason it is subtler also.

It may be noted that only the Annarasamaya expression, which is purely physical in nature, is called Puruṣa here. All other expressions, progressively increasing in subtlety, are Puruṣavidha (in the form of Puruṣa) only. This is because all these subsequent expressions of Ātmā are confined within the physical expression of Annarasamaya, that is, within Puruṣa. This implies that the physical expression (the Annarasamaya expression) of Ātmā determines the basic individuality of a being; all others constitute a build-up thereon. When the physical expression is withdrawn, all the subtler ones existing thereupon are dissolved into their common source, the Ātmā. This is what is declared in Chāndogya 6.8.6 also. Bṛhadāraṇyaka verse 2.4.12 asserts that individuality is lost on dissolution of the body.

It may be noted that, in the present verse, even if each of the subtle expressions is said to be within the previous ones, its area of expression is in no way reduced progressively on account of it, since it pervades all the previous ones. Each of these various expressions of Ātmā is known as sheath or kośa (कोश). Remember that each subtler kośa pervades the previous one; therefore kośas are not exclusive layers, not one interior or exterior to the other, contrary to what is conventionally understood by interpreters and depicted by means of concentric circles or ovals. The word ‘antara’ in the verse only indicates subtlety, not interiority, since it is specifically stated, in the case of each subtler kośa, that it pervades the previous one (tenaiṣa pūrṇaḥ).

Verse 2.6.1 opens with the declaration that he who knows Brahma as Asat (not existing), becomes so himself. The implication is that he goes after the physical pleasures and possessions. On the other hand, he who knows Brahma as SAT (existing) becomes known as SAT. But, to both of them, Brahma is the same; there is no difference except in the perception of individuals. Since Brahma is thus declared as the same for both of them, a question naturally arises as to where each of them go after leaving from here. Do they go to different destinations? The answer is an indirect one; see it below:

… सोഽकामयत | बहु स्यां प्रजायेयेति | स तपोഽतप्यत | स तपस्तप्त्वा | इदं सर्वमसृजत | यदिदं किंच | तत्सृष्ट्वा तदेवानुप्रविशत् | तदनुप्रविश्य | सच्च त्यच्चाभवत् | निरुक्तं चानिरुक्तं च | निलयनं चानिलयनं च | विज्ञानं चाविज्ञानं च | सत्यं चानृतं च | सत्यमभवत् यदिदं किंच| तत् सत्यमित्याचक्षते | …… || 2.6.1 ||

… soഽkāmayata; bahu syāṃ prajāyeyeti, sa tapoഽtapyata; sa tapastaptvā; idaṃ sarvamasṛjata; yadidaṃ kiṃca; tatsṛṣṭvā tadevānupraviśat; tadanupraviśya; sacca tyaccābhavat; niruktaṃ cāniruktaṃ ca; nilayanaṃ cānilayanaṃ ca; vijñānaṃ cāvijñānaṃ ca; satyaṃ cānṛtaṃ ca; satyamabhavat yadidaṃ kiṃca; tat satyamityācakṣate ……. (2.6.1)

Word meaning: saḥ- he (Ātmā); akāmayata- willed; bahu syāṃ prajāyeyeti – may I become many through prajas; tapotapyata – did tapas; tapastaptvā by doing tapas; idaṃ sarvamasṛjata – brought forth all that is here; yadidaṃ kiṃca – whatever is here; tat- that; sṛṣṭvā- having brought forth; eva- verily; ānupraviśat- entered; tadanupraviśya – having entered that; sat- SAT; ca- and; tyat; Asat; abhavat- became; niruktaṃ- defined; aniruktaṃ- undefined; nilayanaṃ- abode; anilayanaṃ- abiding; vijñānaṃ- knowledge; avijñānaṃ- nescience; satyaṃ- virtuous; anṛtaṃ- vicious; satyam- Satyam; abhavat- became; yadidaṃ kiṃca – whatever here; tat satyamityācakṣate – it is called Satyam.

Verse meaning: He (Ātmā) willed to become many by having prajas. He did tapas and by tapas he brought forth all that is here. Then he entered them all; thus everything became consisted of SAT and Asat, defined and undefined, abode and abiding, knowledge and nescience and virtuous and vicious. Whatever exists here thus became Satyam and therefore it is called Satyam.

Note that this is the answer to the question where those who really know Brahma and those who do not know so, go after leaving from here. It is clarified here that knowledge and nescience come from the same source and therefore, both should go to that very same source, the Ātmā. The ‘going’ mentioned here happens only when one gets rid of his body at the end (ie. after leaving here). But, while still being in body, only those who know Brahma can attain to Brahma. Such an enlightened person gives up his body-consciousness, so says Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad (5.14).

In verse 2.3.1 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka, we saw that Brahma has two forms and they are same as stated in the present verse above. Moreover, Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad says in verses 1.1.8 and 1.1.9 how Brahma evolved from Ātmā and how the universe consequently came into being, through the tapas of Ātmā. It is the same thing now being described above. Why Brahma and, vicariously, the whole universe are called Satyam is explained in Chāndogya 8.3.4 & 8.3.5 and also in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 5.5.1, which we have already seen.

The next verse (2.7.1) states that it was verily Asat which existed in the beginning. This may seem confusing. But, it must be understood as a reference to the invoking of Prakṛti by Ātmā, made in tune with the narration of manifestation in the previous verse; therein it was stated that Ātmā brought forth everything first and then he entered them all. This implies existence of Asat in the beginning, which we see here. But, such presentation of seemingly objectionable ideas is only a tool to facilitate easy comprehension; actually, Ātmā and Prakṛti are inseparable.

Verse 2.8.1 declares that it is out of fear of Ātmā that wind blows, sun rises and Agni, Indra and Mṛtyu act. The idea is that all devas function under his control. The same idea is seen in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 3.8.9 and Kaṭha 6.3, which we have already studied.

This verse also gives an interesting description of the measure of bliss (Ānanda) that a person well-versed in Vedas and unaffected by Kāma would attain to. Let there be a noble youth with wisdom and good learning who is resolute and strong; the happiness he would feel if the whole world and wealth therein belongs to him is the measure of human bliss. Hundred times of this measure of human bliss is the bliss of human Gandharvas; hundred times thereof is the bliss of celestial Gandharvas; hundred times thereof is the bliss of the manes who belong to the eternal world; hundred times thereof is the bliss of devas born in the world of devas; hundred times thereof is the bliss of karmadevas; hundred times thereof is the bliss of Devas; hundred times thereof is the bliss of Indra; hundred times thereof is the bliss of Bṛhaspati; hundred times thereof is the bliss of Prajāpati; hundred times thereof is the bliss of Brahma. This is same as the bliss of an enlightened person who is not felled by Kāma. We need not break our heads on the mythological characters mentioned here; the aim of the description is to glorify the bliss that would accrue to a man who is enlightened and who has got rid of all Kāma.

The verse continues to say that he who is in man is same as he who is in the sun. The implication is that this whole universe is ruled by one and only one power. A person who knows thus transcends all the expressions of Ātmā starting from Annamaya kośa. His final destination must obviously be Ātmā, the state described in verse 7 of Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad.

Thus ends the second chapter. Now, we may move on to the last chapter, the third one, named Bhṛguvalli. Bhṛgu, son of Varuṇa, requested his father to teach him about Brahma. Varuṇa enlightens his son with what we have learned in Brahmavalli about kośas. As a prelude thereto, he says that food, Prāṇa, eyes, ears, Manas and speech are all Brahma. Then he elaborates thus:

… यतो वा इमानि भूतानि जायन्ते | येन जातानि जीवन्ति | यत्प्रयन्त्यभिसंविशन्ति | तद्विजिज्ञासस्व तद्ब्रह्मेति ….. || 3.1.1 ||

… yato vā imāni bhūtāni jāyante; yena jātāni jīvanti; yatprayantyabhisaṃviśanti; tadvijijñāsasva tadbrahmeti …. (3.1.1)

Word meaning: yataḥ- from which; vā- vai-verily; imāni- these; bhūtāni- beings; jāyante- originate; yena- by which; jātāni- those which thus originated; jīvanti- live; yat- to which; prayanti- strive to; abhisaṃviśanti- dissolve in; tat- that; vijijñāsasva- aspire to know; brahma- Brahma; iti- thus.

Verse meaning: From which these beings originate, by which they live and to which they strive to dissolve in, you should aspire to know that; that is Brahma.

Varuṇa thus tells his son that all beings emerge from, live in and, at the end, dissolve in Brahma and asks him to know it by own effort. ‘Knowing’ is not simply understanding, it is but experiencing also. When we say sugar is sweet, everybody will understand it; but experiencing that sweetness is what real knowing is. This is what Varuṇa asks his son to do and this is what the scriptures mean by ‘knowing’. This is the real implication of the declarations like ‘one who knows Brahma becomes Brahma’ and ‘one who knows Brahma attains to the Ultimate’.

In obedience to his father’s instructions, Bhṛgu does tapas; but, what he first knows is the Annarasamaya kośa only, which is the grossest and easily attainable expression of the Ultimate. He saw that his father’s definition matches with what he found. But, the father was not satisfied; he sends him back to do tapas again. This time, Bhṛgu came back with his new finding, Prāṇamaya kośa, as Brahma. There was surely progress in his enlightenment, as he could go subtler than earlier. But, his father’s response was the same as before. Bhṛgu again set out for tapas. He gradually crossed over into Manomaya, Vijñānamaya and finally Ānandamaya kośas, to the satisfaction of his father.

At the end, Varuṇa cautions his son against despising or rejecting annam; this is presumably in view of his sending back the son when he reported his first finding of Brahma as Annarasamaya. His intention is to impress upon his son that Annarasamaya kośa is not to be despised of; for, without it, other kośas are irrelevant. Varuṇa tells his son that annam is Prāṇa; this is because, in the absence of annam, Prāṇa cannot be sustained. So far is the philosophy of Varuṇa and his son Bhṛgu.

With this the Upaniṣad concludes the philosophical discourse.

Readers can contact the author by email at: karthiksreedhar@gmail.com

In classical Japanese, India is known as “tenjiku”, which translates as “the land of heaven”. This is only an indication of how Japanese culture appreciates the Indian civilization. This term, again, is derived from the Chinese word “Tianzhu”.

Indian ideas, philosophies, and cultures had spread to China through Shakyamuni Tathagata Buddha who went to China and spread the teachings. From there, the ideas developed and reached towards far east. China had become a base for the spread, you might say.

Japanese culture has great root in the Chinese culture. Even if you look at their linguistics, much of Japanese letters have been influenced by Chinese, viz. their writing system Kanji. Indian culture, has too, influenced the Japanese culture, and it is estimated that it spread to Japan around 6th century AD. The reason is how Buddhism descended from Hinduism. “India conquered China without armies,” a quote from one Chinese admiral.

Japanese culture has gods and demons too, which is quite similar to the Hindu mythology. There are many Hindu gods that have paved their way into the Japanese mythologies.

For instance, you can see this Japanese version of Saraswati, Benzaiten:

Yama, Enma:

Apsara, Tennin:

King of Gods – Indra, Taishakuten:

Ganesha (Ganapati), Kangiten:

Kubera, Bishamonten:

Garuda, Karura:

Many such references can be seen, especially if you go into the Kansai region. About 20 gods are worshiped all around Japan. Many of them can be seen in the Kyoto region, which is known as the city of a thousand shrines.

There are hundreds of shrines to Goddess Saraswati alone in that country, along with innumerable representations of Lakshmi, Indra, Brahma, Ganesha, Garuda and others. Even deities forgotten in India are worshipped in Japan.

There is also one interesting story about Sujatha, where a starving Buddha was saved by a girl. The girl had fed him milk gruel, and now her name is so famous that it is even turned into a dairy product ‘Sujatha’ which is sold by Meiraku.

A number of words in the Japanese language have their roots in Sanskrit. For instance, the 6th-century Siddham script is preserved in Japan, though it has disappeared from India. “Beejaksharas” (or etymology of alphabets) of Sanskrit in this script are regarded as holy and given great importance. Each deity has a “Beejakshara” and these are venerated by the people, even though most of them cannot read it. Some Japanese tombs are adorned with the Sanskrit alphabet.

Also, the idea of karma has also entered Japanese philosophies. They say “bachi ga ataru”, which translates as “something bad will happen to you if your actions cause harm”.

When my son went to India and met an elderly lady, he offered his obeisances and seeing this the lady started crying and blessed my son saying that nowadays none of the new generation children like the act of offering obeisances and said she was astonished seeing my son doing this even though brought up in a foreign country. The credit for teaching my son this should go to Srila Prabhupada and ISKCON, in which offering obeisances is an integral part of Vaishnava culture.

Offering obeisances to the Supreme Lord and to the devotees of the Lord is an important limb of Bhakti or devotional service. The first thing we are expected to do upon having darshan of the Lord or His pure devotees is to offer pranams. In our Vedic culture it has been a practise that whenever the younger ones in the family meet anyone elder than them, they immediately fall at their feet and offer their obeisances and seek the elders blessings. In Mahabharatha also we see that Krishna the Supreme Personality of Godhead follows this very nicely and whenever He meets Yudhishtira who is elder, the Lord gets up and offers respects. This culture is mostly forgotten now. Srimad Bhagavatam from the beginning to the end, glorifies the Lord by saying “namah namah” again and again. The first verse in Srimad Bhagavatam begins with “om namo bhagavate vasudevaya” and the last verse is 12.13.23

naama-sankirtanam yasya
sarva-paapa-pranaashanam
pranaamo duhkha-shamanas
tam namaami harim param

“I offer my respectful obeisances unto the Supreme Lord, Hari, the congregational chanting of whose holy names destroys all sinful reactions, and the offering of obeisances unto whom relieves all material suffering.”

We are unaware of the great value of this practice. Just by falling at the feet of the elders we attract the mercy and blessings of the elders and any misunderstanding or anger just melts away by this very act. In this regard there is a beautiful story of sage Markandeya in the Padma purana Srsti khanda chapter 33 and we shall see the same here.

This pastime of Markandeya is different from the one given in the Srimad Bhagavatam, as it is from a different kalpa. In the previous kalpa, there was a renowned sage by the name Mrikandu and a son was born to him. His name was Markandeya. That boy attained five years of age and developed exceedingly good qualities. Once, a sage full of knowledge saw the boy roaming around in the courtyard. The sage stood there for a long time and through his mystic vision came to know all about the future course of events that were to occur in the life of the boy. Seeing the sage, Mrikandu asked him, “What is the duration of life of my son? Kindly calculate the number of years remaining in his life, and whether they are less in quantity or great.” The sage said, “O Lord of the sages! The creator of this world [Brahma] has fixed the total remaining duration of life of your son to be six months. Please do not lament. I have told you the truth.” Mrikandu heard this and then performed the upanayana, sacred thread ceremony, of his son Mrikandu then said to his son, “Always offer obeisances to the sages.” The son, having heard this, took great pleasure in offering such obeisances.

Not caring for high or low caste, he paid respects to all humans. After five months and twenty-five days had passed, Markandeya saw a group of seven sages and offered his respects to them. Markandeya was wearing a mekhala, a belt-like girdle, and was carrying a staff. The sages said, “aayushmaan bhava,” “Live long!” However, after saying this, they noticed that the boy had only five days remaining in his life. Knowing this fact, the sages became frightened. They took the boy with them and went to see Lord Brahma. They paid their respects to Lord Brahma and introduced the boy. The boy offered obeisances to Lord Brahma. Lord Brahma said to the boy, “May you live long.” The sages heard these words and were visibly pleased. Lord Brahma saw the sages and was amazed. He said to the sages, “Who is this lad and why has he come here?” The sages then narrated everything as follows, “This is the son of Mrikandu. He is short-lived. We have brought him here so that you can kindly make him long-lived. Seeing that he was short lived, his father named Mrikandu performed the upanayana ceremony, tying the girdle around his waist and bestowing the staff. Mrikandu then advised him to pay respects to each and every saintly person he saw. O great grandsire! We were on a pilgrimage and happened to notice this lad paying respects to each and everyone. Thus we blessed him by saying, ‘Live long!’ How will the words spoken by us as well as yourself come true?” Thus addressed by them, Lord Brahma replied, “This is Satya-loka — the land where true words are spoken. This is the reason why it is fearless from all sides. This lad named Markandeya will now have a life-span equivalent to mine. This best among sages will be helpful to me and will be present along with me at the beginning as well as at the end of a kalpa.”

Thus we see the great value of offering obeisances and now under the blessings of Srila Prabhupada we should revive this wonderful culture and teach our younger generation the value of this.

The ultimate aim of human life is self-realization by knowing who am I? All kinds of religious thoughts, theories, preaching and practices help human beings to reach this goal and nothing else. Just as there are many ways to reach a place in physical world like walk, bus, train and so on, there are different paths and methods to reach the goal of life viz., Bhakti, Jnana and Vairagya ( devotion, knowledge and renunciation respectively).

Man being a rational being amongst 84 lakh species created by the Almighty attempts to question everything he or she comes across and strives to find answers through reading, questioning the Master, analysis, assimilation and introspection. History of human evolution and civilization is a mere journey in this direction. Spiritual elevation would be a reality only when an individual strives, struggles, survives and succeeds in his efforts to find the truth in his life. In real terms, it is truth and nothing else and truth cannot be in parts and fragments but in totality and in perfect manner without any contradictions and inconsistencies whatsoever.

Devotees are of four groups as told by Lord Krishna in Srimad BhagavadGita – Aarto, Jijnasu, Arthardhi and Jnani. One who is engulfed in worries, sufferings and diseases belongs to first category of devotees- Draupadi, Gajendra and many other personalities come to our mind who prayed and cried for God in need, worry, melancholy and found solution, solace and comfort. Equally prominent are the great personalities like Dhruva, Parikshiit, Janaka, Yudhistara and many more who were yearning to know the ultimate truth and attained Janna-knowledge of Soul. Majority of human beings , not with any tinge of regret or inferior feeling belong to such a group who have always acquired and demonstrated over millions of years and Yugas added many to their wish list in spite of fulfilling many desires through the grace of God. We find in this materialistic world this classification of devotees who deliberately chose devotion as a vehicle for the fulfillment of desires. As long as Desires exist and dominate human mind, there will be devotees who worship God for the fulfillment of the same in their lives. Just as waves in the Ocean, these desires do not diminish or subside and they have the tendency to reappear, multiply, accumulate and inundate the human mind for all times with no signs of contentment in sight throughout the life. However, it does not mean that all the devotees belong to this class who always are behind the fleeting desires. Men and women who could understand the transitory nature of desires do not anchor for the same.

In the final group, we find a small and miniscule group of the knowers who demonstrate highly gifted qualities and people having enviable degree of inquisitiveness and never satisfying thirst for knowing the deeper and deeper truths of life and beyond. Prahlada, Narada, Sanakasa, Sananda, Nandana, Ambarisha, Pundarika, Ved Vyasa, Suka Parabrahma and many more personalities who from their birth shone in the glory of the Lord and lived and danced in the nectar of Names of God. Everyone in this Universe unquestionably and undoubtedly becomes part of one of these four classes of Devotees.

The question often haunting the inquisitive mind is who inspires, motivates and guides the mortals in the path of devotion. Obviously, it is the Master who takes the lead and how to identify the Master is another area of concern. It is repeatedly told by the elders just as the Seeker strives to search and find his Teacher; the later is also equally and more eagerly in his search of the Seeker. Ultimately the meeting takes place and thereafter, things become crystal clear to both and the ways are wide open. In Gita again, Lord amplifies the position of the Seeker. The disciple should approach the Master and Salute him, prostrate on the feet; question the Guru on matters relevant with all humility and with utmost interest to know and also serve the Guru with all the devotion and dedication and only then the Master will readily show the path of realization to the student.

In the past, we have come across in scriptures, many devotees attained salvation or Moksha without any knowledge of scriptures or even without any formal initiation into any study by the Guru or the Master. In the great religious place of Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh, the place is known for the attainment of Moksha for a spider, snake and an elephant. The Spider did not read or listen to Vedas, the snake did not know any religious books and the elephant also did not recite any mantras but all the three were shown benevolence by the Lord by granting the salvation from the unending chain of birth and death.

Adi Sankaracharya in Sivananda Lahari extolled the glory of Lord Siva comparing himself to’ Pasu’- animal and as Pasupathi Lord Siva should show mercy on him. Here Adi Sanakaracharya prayed on behalf of all and not for himself. We may not know grammar, literature, dance, music or any such subjects but if one keeps his intellect, mind and body on the lotus feet of the Lord, then everything else turns out to be easy and clear.

In another place in Sivanandalahari stothra, Adi Sankaracharya vividly brings out the need to fix our concentration on the feet of the Lord even though we may take the birth of God, men, animals, mountains, insects and so on, the aim of everyone should be to pray and nothing more and in what shape one is born is not relevant.

Devotion or Bhakti is so simple and easy to practice and all the sins one has committed in his life will stand burnt and uplift him from the deep sea of birth and death as in case of Ajamila in Sri Bhagavatam. Throughout his life, he spent in all possible sinful activities, never uttered the name of God even once but at the time of his death, he murmured the name of his son Narayana. This simple act of uttering his son’s name Narayana absolved him from all sins and took him to heaven and the messengers sent by the Yama had to return. This adequately demonstrates the need to chant the name of Lord Everyday without waiting for the last day of life which is not known to us. That is why Adi Sankara emphasizes the need to do Bhajan, have friend ship with good people, read at least once Gita, have sip of Ganga Water and pray lord at least once in life. Many simple things are laid out for all of us in Bhajagovinda Stotram.

Prahlada preaches his fellow students about the need to have devotion and do chanting of the names of Lord Vishnu without wasting life in transitory affairs. Division of 100 years of human life into four stages viz., childhood, adolescence, youth and old age and describing the different activities like having material enjoyments with wife, children, relations, wealth, possessions and all other material attractions before one realizes no time is left for lasting and self- realizing actions. Age fleets and moves fast taking human being nearer to the end of life and all the actions performed in life prove to be futile and meaningless serving no purpose and the priceless human life is spent in transitory and fleeting activities. Prahlada, therefore, exhorts in Srimadbhagavatam the need to delve on the name of God, chant the name of God and perform all such deeds which help in realization.

In Gita, we find a great expression on the elevated presentation of ways of devotion in Bhakti Yoga-12th chapter. Knowledge is superior to mere practice of rituals, meditation is superior to knowledge and renunciation is superior to meditation. It is clear that once renunciation of fruits of action is sacrificed, peace returns to human being. In this narration, one should understand that mere bhakti or performing rituals may lead to nowhere, and knowledge may lead to arrogance and meditation stabilizes the mind in goal and finally thyaga or renunciation may bring lasting peace immediately.

In the ultimate analysis, the most fruitful and instantly rewarding form of devotion is “Saranagati”- taking refuge under the kindness of God. Many personalities resorted to this mode when it was proved that conditions were beyond their capacity and control and their energy levels were far inadequate to combat, fight and achieve the result. Gajendra, king of elephants fought for thousand years in water with crocodile and felt his energies debilitating, diminishing and quite inferior to that of the increasing strength and capabilities of the Crocodile in the water. Then he prayed for help, protection and salvation to the Lord in nameless, shapeless but the Omnipotent, Omnipresent and Omniscient. Lord Vishnu who is considered by Sruthi as the ultimate protector of the creation came to his rescue and proved his title of the savior of the Saranarthi – who surrenders at the feet of the Lord for protection and salvation.

Question: I heard that Sukadeva Gosvami was Krsna’s parrot in his last life, and in this life he was a brahman-realized person. How is one to understand this, if he’s an eternal associate of the Lord? Is this a lila or something else?

Answer: There are various types of stories related to Sukadeva in shastra, and each is given to illustrate specific points. For example, there is also a story that Sukadeva got married and had children. The important thing is not the story but the message behind it. Vyasa is not a story teller but an educator, and stories are the best way to educate. This is also accepted by modern pedagogues.

Stories are told according to the needs of the audience. Thus, there may be variations in the stories. Moreover, history is not linear but cyclic. This is difficult for the modern mind to grasp. There have been many Sukas, just as there have been many Vyasas. So do not get confused by the identity of names. Two stories can be about two different Sukas, from two different cycles.

Try to understand the essence of the philosophy and do not get lost in the stories. These stories are not given just for their own sake, they are there to explain Vedic philosophy. Like when you are teaching the alphabet to a child, you make a picture of an apple and write a big “A” next to it. The intent is to teach “A”, which has nothing to do with the apple, except that it helps in teaching “A”.

Whether Sukadeva Gosvami really existed or not, and whether he was a parrot or a human, is not so important. The point is to grasp what is being explained, e.g. dharmah projjhita-kaitavah (to reject all materially motivated or cheating religion), and stories are a great means of preserving the teaching. They are also good entertainment, for example on parikrama. But we must make a distinction between stories of Krsna and of other personalities. Stories of Krsna and His devotees have spiritual value apart from the message behind them. These stories purify the heart even if one does not understand the message conveyed in them.

So for example, pure bhakti can’t be performed unless one becomes free from the propensity to cheat. Among various types of cheating, one of the worst is the desire for liberation. Unless one becomes completely free from the desire for liberation, one will not perform pure bhakti, because mukti and bhakti are absolutely antagonistic to each other. One who wants to attain mukti has no interest in bhakti. Inherently, the desire for mukti means, “The world is a place of misery, it is not even real. I will renounce everything. Let the whole world burn to ashes, I don’t care.” Such a person is interested only in his own selfish desire to be free from suffering and nothing else. The desire to serve anyone, even God, cannot take hold in such a mind, thus this conception has to be completely uprooted from a person’s heart before love of God can be achieved.

The story of Sukadeva Gosvami is given specifically to make this point. Sukadeva was self-realized from his very birth, nobody could ever be more realized than he was. He was so absorbed in Brahman that he did not even know the difference between male and female. But later, the same person heard a few verses from the Bhagavatam describing the beauty and compassion of Krsna, and he became mesmerized by these verses. Sukadeva—who was so renounced that he left home just after birth, not even caring that his father was piteously calling after him to please come back—returned home to study the Bhagavatam from that same father. He, who would not stay in one place for more than a few minutes, lived at his father’s ashram and studied the whole Bhagavatam encompassing twelve Cantos. This means bhakti is superior to mukti. Mukti is so unattractive in comparison to bhakti that even such a great, highly renounced person, renounced mukti itself to achieve bhakti. When Sukadeva Gosvami became a devotee, he even renounced vairagya, renunciation. What can be higher renunciation than that? Who will renounce such a position? And then he became a follower of bhakti-marga, the devotional path. That is the import of the story of Sukadeva in the Bhagavatam. Vyasa cleverly refutes Advaitavada and establishes bhakti as supreme by telling the story of Suka at the very beginning of the Bhagavatam.

Unless bhakti is established as superior and mukti as inferior, one will not take interest in it. The Bhagavatam is basically there to delineate this fact. This is the essence of the dialog that took place between Narada and Vyasa, when Vyasa was feeling incomplete even after having written Vedanta Sutra and Mahabharata. Sri Narada pointed out to him that Vyasa had not clearly explained uttama-bhakti. So Vyasadeva began Bhagavatam with the story of Suka. He explained that he had a son, Sukadeva, and that son was born only after remaining in his mother’s womb for sixteen years. If you think about this, you do not have to go far before you get into trouble. How is it possible that Sukadeva Gosvami stayed in the womb for sixteen years? It is said that as soon as he took birth, he walked away. Does it mean that he came out as a grown-up man or did he grow immediately after taking birth? And how could he have taken birth? It’s all very problematic if you’re looking at the superficial story. So then what is the need of showing all these story elements? That is because most people are interested in stories, and stories stick in the mind. People pay attention to and remember interesting stories. Previously many people could not read and write, and even for those who could, books were very difficult to produce and hard to acquire. So to create interest and be easily remembered, we are given, “A” for apple.

But the point is not in the story at all. If you try to investigate the story itself, you’ll end up nowhere. There are so many types of Sukadeva Gosvamis. When you read Mahabharata, Sukadeva Gosvami is married and has children. And there is also Chaya-Sukadeva, shadow-Sukadeva. But that is not the point. The point is the purport behind the story. Bhagavatam wants to establish dharmah projjhita-kaitava, therefore different stories are brought in to explain the principle.

For another example, take the story of the Four Kumaras. Like Sukadeva, they were also Brahman-realized. They were so elevated, they even went to Vaikuntha. Then once they were there, they become angry—anger and pride overtook them, even there. In contrast, the gatekeepers Jaya and Vijaya kept calm and maintained a humble demeanor although they were not at mistake in stopping the Kumaras from entering, because the Kumaras were not dressed properly. If you have to go to God, you have to dress properly. That means if you have no spiritual vasanas, you cannot reach God.

This story was to show that even such renounced people cannot become free from their material vasanas. Only bhakti makes one completely pure and cleans the heart of all impurities. The Kumaras were absorbed in Brahman, and like Sukadeva they also went naked. They were so renounced, they did not even wear clothes, so where is the possibility of them becoming angry? The story is there basically to defeat all these Mayavada conceptions and similarly the path of yoga. Another story to the same end was that of Saubhari Muni. He meditated for a long time inside the Yamuna River, and yet became interested in married life. He was like a skeleton from performing austeries, but sex desire did not leave him. On the other hand we read stories of devotees like Sri Haridasa Thakura, who could not be allured by a young woman or even by Mayadevi personified.

All these stories are there specifically to show the greatness of bhakti over all other paths. The point is not in the telling of a story, but in what the story is trying to tell us.

So, the stories of the Kumaras and Sukadeva expose the flaw in the path of jnana. They were the most advanced followers of jnana-marga, but when introduced to bhakti, they threw aside their desires for mukti and took up bhakti for Krsna. The whole purpose of stories such as Sukadeva’s is to show how devotion is free from all materialistic motives and selfishness, which are all cheating. Unless one comes to the platform of pure devotion, one remains impure, because he still has the cheating propensity deep in his heart. By running after the superficial details of his story, its true point will be lost and we will have missed the benefit for which it was told in the first place.

Source: jiva.org

Aitareya Upaniṣad is part of Aitareya Āraṇyaka which belongs to Ṛgveda. This is one of the most ancient Upaniṣads and is the only Principal Upaniṣad under Ṛgveda. The name Aitareya descends from Ṛṣi Aitareya who is considered as its revealer. It has got three chapters, each of which is divided into sections and then into verses. A verse is identified by its serial number together with the respective section and chapter numbers. This is the tenth Upaniṣad in the series, ‘The Science of Upanishads’.

Being part of a very ancient Āraṇyaka, this Upaniṣad has its expositions in a cryptic language predominantly mythological in nature. This applies especially to narrations regarding origin of beings. We have already studied, in later Upaniṣads, the same topic in a more clarified and rational format. Therefore, there is no point in discussing the presentations made here, in this respect. Aitareya Upaniṣad is specially known for the great declaration (Mahāvākya) it contains: “Prajñānam Brahma”. We have already seen three out of the four Mahāvākyas.

The Upaniṣad opens with a declaration on the oneness and eternalness of Ātmā. Let us see the verse:

आत्मा वा इदमेक एवाग्र आसीत् | नान्यत्किंचन मिषत् | स ईक्षत लोकान्नु सृजा इति ||1.1.1 ||

ātmā vā idameka evāgra āsīt; nānyatkiṃcana miṣat; sa īkṣata lokānnu sṛjā iti. (1.1.1)

Word meaning: ātmā- Ātmā (Ātman); vā- vai – verily; idam- this, here; eka- one; eva- alone; agra- agre – in the beginning; āsīt- was; nānyatkiṃcana- nothing else whatsoever; miṣat- winked, existed; sa- He (Ātmā); īkṣata- thought; lokānnu sṛjā iti- let me create worlds.

Verse meaning: In the beginning, Ātmā alone existed here; nothing else, whatsoever, winked (originated). Ātmā thought, “Let me create the worlds”.

The oneness of Ātmā is an assertion consistently appearing in other Principal Upaniṣads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka 1.4.17, Māṇḍūkya 7 & 12, Śvetāśvatara 6.11, etc.). These Upaniṣads also declare that all beings originated from Ātmā (Bṛhadāraṇyaka 2.4.6, Chāndogya 6.8.7, Kaṭha 5.9 & 5.10, Śvetāśvatara 4.2). Here, Aitareya expresses the same view.

To start with the process of creation, Ātmā envisaged the world and also its protectors such as Agni (Fire), Vāyu (Air), Āditya (Sun), Diśa (directions), Herbs and plants, Moon, Mṛtyu and Water. To these protectors, he planned to provide abodes. At first he employed the form of a cow; but, they did not accept it, as it was found insufficient for them. Then he employed a horse; it too met with rejection. Finally, Ātmā picked up the form of man; fully satisfied, they all acclaimed it as the best. They entered into that form; Agni entered as speech in the mouth, Vāyu as Prāṇa in nostrils, Āditya as sight in eyes, Diśa as hearing in the ears, herbs and plants as hairs in the skin, moon as mind in the heart, Mṛtyu as Apāna in the navel and water as semen in the generative organ. This is what is described in this Upaniṣad about the origin of beings and about allied matters (1.1.2 to 1.1.4 and 1.2.1 to 1.2.4). Here, we may note that the search for abode for protectors culminates in man. This may be taken as an indication of the evolution of beings into the form of man, the forms of cow and horse representing lower rungs in the process. No further discussion is attempted, in view of the reason mentioned in the beginning.

Now, we see in verses 1.3.1 to 1.3.10, a description regarding creation of Annam (food) and the means for its consumption. This too has no philosophical importance and therefore does not warrant a discussion. But, verses 1.3.11 to 1.3.14 contain an esoteric exposition on how Ātmā sustains all the beings and how he comes to be Brahma. Verse 1.3.11 says that having envisaged the worlds, protectors and abodes, Ātmā noticed the inability of all these to exist without him. So he wanted to enter all and to be there always. But, he thought, “If spoken by speech, inhaled by Prāṇa, seen by eyes, heard by ears, touched by skin, thought of by mind, blown out by Apāna, discharged by generative organ, then who am I?” The implication is that he is not one to be spoken by speech, inhaled by Prāṇa, and so on; he is not an object of reach for these protectors. He is their sustainer and therefore, he must be beyond their reach. It follows that he cannot enter the body through any of them.

He therefore made an opening at the top extreme of the head and entered in, through that gate. This opening is known by the name Vidṛti and it is the place of bliss (nāndana). In the body, Ātmā has three places of dwelling which are three states of dreaming (verse 1.3.12). The implication is that Ātmā is seated in the body deep inside the head, which is not reachable by speech, ears, eyes, etc. On reaching him by appropriate means one enjoys bliss. From what we have already seen in other Upaniṣads, we can make out that the seat which finds a mention here is the Heart (Thalamus), the centre of consciousness. We also know that by realising Ātmā, one enjoys bliss (Kaṭha 5.12, Śvetāśvatara 6.12, etc). The three places of dwelling mentioned here are the three states of consciousness, namely, waking, dreaming and deep-sleep, which we have seen in detail in Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad. All these three states are depicted here as dreaming states, since none of them represents full awakening; the state of full awakening is the fourth state which is independent of the body.

Having established himself in the body, as afore-said, Ātmā saw at first only the forms of beings; he looked if anything else remained to be seen. Then he saw Puruṣa pervading all the beings and recognised this Puruṣa pervading the beings as Brahma; consequently, Ātmā declared, ‘I saw’ (1.3.13). Puruṣa got the name ‘Idandra’ (idam + dra = this I saw) in this manner, but he is indirectly called Indra (1.3.14).

The meaning of this rather veiled description is that Ātmā pervading the beings is Puruṣa; he pervades all, since without him nothing can exist (vide 1.3.11 above). On so pervading, everything naturally becomes Satyam (as stated in verse 2.6.1 of Taittirīya) which is Brahma. Here, when it is declared ‘I saw’, actually Ātmā saw himself pervading the beings. At first, the sight did not go beyond the physical part of the beings, but later it went beyond and saw the pervading entity too. The indication is that in this world, the physical aspects only are easily comprehensible and the sustaining force lies beyond, unreachable to senses. The importance of the name Indra is that he was, in the ancient times, considered to be the Supreme Being, the ultimate power, ruling the world. This underwent change later, when philosophical enquiries progressed further.

We now proceed to the second chapter, wherein it is stated that a person has three births. Let us see which those births are; see verse 2.1.1 which speaks of the first birth:

पुरुषे ह वा अयमादितो गर्भो भवति यदेतद्रेतः तदेतत्सर्वेभ्योഽङ्गेभ्यस्तेजः संभूतम् आत्मन्येवात्मानं बिभर्ति; तद्यदा स्त्रियां सिञ्चति अथैनज्जनयति; तदस्य प्रथमं जन्म || 2.1.1 ||

puruṣe ha vā ayamādito garbho bhavati yadetadretaḥ tadetatsarvebhyoഽṅgebhyastejaḥ saṃbhūtam ātmanyevātmānaṃ bibharti; tadyadā striyāṃ siñcati athainajjanayati; tadasya prathamaṃ janma. (2.1.1)

Word meaning: puruṣe- in man; ha- indeed; vā- verily; ayam- this; ādito- at first; garbhaḥ- conception; bhavati- occurs; yat- which; etat- this; retaḥ- sperm, seminal fluid; tat- that; etat- this; sarvebhyaḥ- of all; aṅgebhyaḥ- of body members; tejaḥ- essence, spirit; saṃbhūtam- combined together, composed of; ātmanyevātmānaṃ- him within himself; bibharti- bears, keeps; yadā- when; striyāṃ- in woman; siñcati- infuses into; atha- then; enajjanayati- delivers it; tadasya- that is his; prathamaṃ- first; janma- birth.

Verse meaning: The first conception (of a person) occurs in man, in the form of sperms (semen) which consists of the essence of all his body members. He bears it within himself (this is the conception). When he infuses his semen into woman, (it is said that) he delivers it; this is the first birth.

The birth mentioned here is not of the man who contributes the sperm, but it applies to all persons in general, man or woman. If, on the contrary, it is the birth of the sperm-producing man, it cannot be his first birth, since he already exists; moreover, we will have to concede then that women do not have births. Therefore, whatever is said in this chapter about three births are to be taken as presenting a general issue, applicable to all, not only to the sperm-giving man. The first birth of the sperm-giving man in a particular case must have happened when his father delivered the sperms into the womb of his mother. Contrary to this, conventional interpretations take the three births as pertaining to the sperm-giving man and consequently they fail to appreciate the message of the Upaniṣad in its right perspective.

In 2.1.2 & 2.1.3, it is said that the sperm infused into the woman becomes a part of her body and therefore it does not hurt her. She fosters it and in return she is fostered by the sperm-owner man. She duly gives birth to the child; it is the second birth of the person. Then, which is the third birth? Let us see it in 2.1.4 which is given below:

सोഽस्यायमात्मा पुण्येभ्यः कर्मभ्यः प्रतिधीयते अथास्यायमितर आत्मा कृतकृत्यो वयोगतः प्रैति, स इतः प्रयन्नेव पुनर्जायते तदस्य तृतीयं जन्म || 2.1.4 ||

soഽsyāyamātmā puṇyebhyaḥ karmabhyaḥ pratidhīyate athāsyāyamitara ātmā kṛtakṛtyo vayogataḥ praiti, sa itaḥ prayanneva punarjāyate tadasya tṛtīyaṃ janma. (2.1.4)

Word meaning: saḥ- he; asya- his; ayam- this; ātmā- body; puṇyebhyaḥ karmabhyaḥ – for virtuous deeds; pratidhīyate- make use of; atha- then; asya- his; ayam- this; itara- the other; ātmā- body; kṛtakṛtyo- accomplished, contented; vayogataḥ- advanced in age; praiti- arrives at, reaches, appears; sa- he; itaḥ- from here (the world of karma); prayanneva- on departing; punarjāyate- is born again; tat- that; asya- his; tṛtīyaṃ- third; janma- birth.

Verse meaning: This body (that which is born as stated in 2.1.3 above) is utilised for doing virtuous deeds; on accomplishing all such deeds, when the body reaches an advanced age, he leaves the world of Karma and is born again. This is his third birth.

The word Ātmā here cannot be taken as indicating the ultimate principle of SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA, since, Ātmā is only one and is devoid of Karma, whereas the verse says about Ātmā being two and carrying out Karma. The word therefore indicates body only. The two bodies mentioned here are these: the one that is capable of doing Karma and the other that is in advanced age with accomplished deeds. Obviously, these are the two states of the same body. On reaching the latter state, the person leaves the world of Karma and is reborn, which is the third birth; this is the birth into the world of enlightenment. Though each and every person is not going to pass to this final stage in his life time, the Upaniṣad reveals it as a state that a person can possibly attain to. An indirect injunction here is that all able-bodied persons should engage themselves in virtuous deeds and only such persons become eligible to aspire for enlightenment.

A Ṛgveda hymn (4.27.1) cited by the Upaniṣad in this connection supports this concept about third birth. Further explanations are also given in verses 2.1.5 and 2.1.6. The Ṛgveda hymn says about Ṛsi Vāmadeva breaking away the chains of his abode in womb and getting free. See the hymn as quoted in verse 2.1.5:

गर्भे नु सन्नन्वेषामवेदमहं देवानां जनिमानि विश्वा |
शतं मा पुर आयसीररक्षन्नधः श्येनो जवसा निरदीयम् ||

garbhe nu sannanveṣāmavedamahaṃ devānāṃ janimāni viśvā;
śataṃ mā pura āyasīrarakṣannadhaḥ śyeno javasā niradīyam.

Word meaning: garbhe- in the womb; nu- indeed; san- being; anveṣām- searching; avedam- knew; ahaṃ- I; devānāṃ- of devas; janimāni viśvā – all kinds of;
śataṃ- hundered; mā- me; pura- pure- in the dwelling; āyasīrarakṣan- held by iron restraints; adhaḥ- downwards; śyeno- (like a) hawk; javasā- quickly; niradīyam- broke away.

Verse meaning: Indeed, while being in the womb, I knew, by enquiry, all kinds of Devas. (Desirous of their glittering lives, free from restraints) I quickly broke away, (like) a hawk, hundreds of iron-like strong restraints which were holding me down in that dwelling and (became free).

We have seen what the third birth is. Before that birth takes place, there must be a stage, when the person so born was lying in the womb. We know from our understanding of the third birth that this womb is the world of Karmas. It is this womb that Ṛsi Vāmadeva mentions in his Ṛgveda hymn. The iron restraints indicate the formidable bondages of the world of Karmas, the earthly life. Freedom or Mokṣa lies in demolishing these bondages. This is what the revelation of Ṛsi Vāmadeva means. This revelation in Ṛgveda Samhita finds expression in Kaṭha 6.15 and Muṇḍaka 2.2.8, wherein destruction of entanglements in the Heart is mentioned as a means to attain immortality; Muṇḍaka specifically says about perishing of the impressions of Karma.

In verse 2.1.6 Aitareya adds that, by demolishing the worldly bondages as stated in 2.1.5, Ṛsi Vāmadeva contained all the Kāmas in the resultant heavenly world and attained immortality.

In its third chapter Aitareya presents one of the four Mahāvākya(s) declared by Principal Upaniṣads; it is “प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म (prajñānaṃ brahma)” in verse 3.1.3. (We have already seen the other three Mahāvākyas). The third chapter opens with a question: ”Who or which is that Ātmā whom we meditate upon?” The answer is given thus: ‘Ātmā is He by whom we see or hear or smell scents or utter speech or discern what is sweet and what is not’ (3.1.1). The next verse, 3.1.2 says about Prajñāna. See the verse below:

यदेतत् हृदयं मनश्च, एतत् संज्ञानमाज्ञानं विज्ञानं प्रज्ञानं मेधा दृष्टिर्धृतिर्मतिर्मनीषा जूतिः स्मृतिः सङ्कल्पः क्रतुरसु कामो वश इति, सर्वाण्येवैतानि प्रज्ञानस्य नामधेयानि भवन्ति || 3.1.2 ||

yadetat hṛdayaṃ manaśca, etat saṃjñānamājñānaṃ vijñānaṃ prajñānaṃ medhā dṛṣṭirdhṛtirmatirmanīṣā jūtiḥ smṛtiḥ saṅkalpaḥ kraturasu kāmo vaśa iti, sarvāṇyevaitāni prajñānasya nāmadheyāni bhavanti. (3.1.2)

Word meaning: yadetat- that which is; hṛdayaṃ- Heart; manaḥ- Manas; ca- and; etat- that; saṃjñānam- perception; ājñānaṃ- understanding; vijñānaṃ- worldly knowledge; prajñānaṃ- inner knowledge; medhā- prudence; dṛṣṭiḥ- sight; dhṛti- mental firmness, power of retention in mind; matiḥ- intellect; manīṣā- conception; jūtiḥ- impulse; smṛtiḥ- memory; saṅkalpaḥ- resolve; kratuḥ- determination; asu- reflection; kāmaḥ- wish; vasa- will; iti- so forth, consists of; sarvāṇyevaitāni- all these are verily; prajñānasya- of absolute knowledge; nāmadheyāni bhavanti – are synonyms.

Verse meaning: That which is Heart and Manas consists of perception, understanding, worldly knowledge, inner knowledge, prudence, sight, mental firmness, intellect, conception, impulse, memory, resolve, determination, reflection, wish and will. All these are verily synonyms of absolute knowledge.

We know that Heart is the centre of consciousness in the body; Manas here indicates the whole Antaḥkaraṇa. The phrase, ‘that which is Heart and Manas’, refers to the inner activities of Antaḥkaraṇa undertaken with the help of consciousness from the Heart. This verse says that these activities consist of perception, understanding, etc. It further says that all these can be represented by a single term, ‘Prajñānam’ (प्रज्ञानम्). The word Prajñā (प्रज्ञा) indicates consciousness acting on Antaḥkaraṇa; knowing is the consequence of this action. Prajñānam is an abstraction of all that is gathered by Prajñā in action. Therefore, Prajñānam is said to be absolute knowledge, which means that it is not the knowledge about this or that thing.

Now, we shall see how important Prajñānam is. See verse 3.1.3 below:

एष ब्रह्मा एष इन्द्र एष प्रजापतिः एते सर्वे देवा, इमानि च पञ्चभूतानि – पृथिवी वायुराकाश आपो ज्योतींषि इत्येतानि इमानि च क्षुद्रमिश्राणीव बीजानि इतराणि चेतराणि च अण्डजानि च जारुजानि च स्वेदजानि च उद्भिज्जानि च अश्वा गावः पुरुषा हस्तिनो यत्किंच इदं प्राणि जङ्गमं च पतत्रि च यच्च स्थावरं सर्वं तत् प्रज्ञानेत्रं प्रज्ञाने प्रतिष्ठितं प्रज्ञानेत्रो लोकः प्रज्ञा प्रतिष्ठा प्रज्ञानं ब्रह्म || 3.1.3 ||

eṣa brahmā eṣa indra eṣa prajāpatiḥ ete sarve devā, imāni ca pañcabhūtāni – pṛthivī vāyurākāśa āpo jyotīṃṣi ityetāni imāni ca kṣudramiśrāṇīvabījāni itarāṇi cetarāṇi ca aṇḍajāni ca jārujāni ca svedajāni ca udbhijjāni ca aśvā gāvaḥ puruṣā hastino yatkiṃca idaṃ prāṇi jaṅgamaṃ ca patatri ca yacca sthāvaraṃ sarvaṃ tat prajñānetraṃ prajñāne pratiṣṭhitaṃ prajñānetro lokaḥ prajñā pratiṣṭhā prajñānaṃ brahma. (3.1.3)

Word meaning: eṣa- this; brahmā- Lord Brahmā; eṣa- this; indra- Lord Indra; eṣa- this; prajāpatiḥ- Lord Prajāpatiḥ; ete sarve – all these; devā- Devas; imāni ca pañcabhūtāni – and these pañcabhūtās; ityetāni – such as these; pṛthivī- earth; vāyu- air, ākāśa- space; āpaḥ- water; jyotīṃṣi- fires; imāni ca kṣudramiśrāṇi – small organisms of various kinds; bījāni- seeds; itarāṇi cetarāṇi ca- others and still others; aṇḍajāni- born from eggs; jārujāni- born from the wombs; svedajāni- insects and worms; udbhijjāni- born of shoots; aśvā- horses; gāvaḥ-cows; puruṣā- men; hastinaḥ- elephants; yatkiṃca- whatever; idaṃ- this; prāṇi- breathing; jaṅgamaṃ- moving; patatri-flying; yacca sthāvaraṃ- also that which is not moving; sarvaṃ- all; tat- that; prajñānetraṃ- having Prajñā as eye, led by Prajñā; prajñāne pratiṣṭhitaṃ – established on Prajñānam; prajñānetro lokaḥ – World is led by Prajñā; prajñā pratiṣṭhā – Prajñā is the support; prajñānaṃ brahma – Brahma is Prajñānam.

Verse meaning: Lord Brahma, Lord Indra, Lord Prajāpatiḥ all Devas, all pañcabhūtās, all small organisms of various kinds, seeds of various kinds, beings born from eggs, wombs and shoots, insects and worms, horses, cows, men, elephants and whatever here breathing, moving, flying or not moving – all are led by Prajñā and established on Prajñānam. World is led by Prajñā which is its support also. Brahma is Prajñānam.

We have seen above that Prajñā is the action of consciousness on Antaḥkaraṇa and knowing is the consequence thereof. (Antaḥkaraṇa actually represents the stock of information relating to heredity and physical characteristics together with the physical tools for reading and executing such information. In lower beings and also in initial stages of higher beings, these may be in crude or rudimentary forms). So, Prajñā in essence is consciousness, which in turn represents Ātmā. We have already learnt from other Upaniṣads that universe is ruled and sustained by Ātmā (Bṛhadāraṇyaka 2.1.20, 2.4.6, 2.5.15, 3.7.3 to 3.7.23, 3.8.9, etc, Muṇḍaka 1.1.6, 2.1.1, etc). Here it is said that world is led and supported by Prajñā; the idea expressed is same. In Taittirīya 2.1 we saw that Brahma is Satyam-Jñānam-Anantam. Prajñānam is same as Jñānam; it represents Satyam and Anantam also, since without them Prajñānam cannot exist. So, it follows that Brahma is Prajñānam, as stated in this verse.

The Upaniṣad concludes by declaring that Ṛsi Vāmadeva, by means of this Prajñā, which represents Ātmā, transcended this world and became immortal.

With this, we complete the study of the science of ten Principal Upaniṣads which are renowned as Daśopaniṣads. As stated in the beginning of this series, we will be studying Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad also, considering its importance in exposition of spiritual knowledge.

Readers can contact the author by email at: karthiksreedhar@gmail.com

We have already studied the science of all the ten Principal Upaniṣads (Daśopaniṣads). Now, in this article we take up for study the Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad which does not belong to those ten, but is considered at par with them in view of the significance of its spiritual expositions.

The stream of thoughts therein, however, appears to have a deflection from that of the Daśopaniṣads, in respect of the mode of conception and style of presentation. Nevertheless, this Upaniṣad takes the ancient spiritual postulations further forward by adducing clarifications and making a few new assertions. We will see the details in the course of our study.

This Upaniṣad belongs to Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda and was expounded by Ṛsi Śvetāśvatara. It has got six chapters; a verse is identified by the chapter number followed by the verse number. The Upaniṣad opens with an enquiry into the ultimate cause of all, presented as being made by a group of Brahmavādins who are already Brahmavits. Brahmavādin is a person who asserts that all things are to be identified with Brahma and Brahmavit is a knower of Brahma. A group of such people raises a doubt whether Brahma is really the ultimate principle. They start an enquiry to settle the doubt. The first chapter deals with this enquiry and its findings. Let us see the first verse:

ब्रह्मवादिनो वदन्ति
किं कारणं ब्रहम कुतः स्म जाता केन जीवाम क्व च संप्रतिष्ठाः |
अधिष्ठिताः केन सुखेतरेषु वर्तामहे ब्रह्मविदो व्यवस्थाम् || 1.1 ||

brahmavādino vadanti
kiṃ kāraṇaṃ brahama kutaḥ sma jātā kena jīvāma kva ca saṃpratiṣṭhāḥ;
adhiṣṭhitāḥ kena sukhetareṣu vartāmahe brahmavido vyavasthām. (1.1)

Word meaning: brahmavādinaḥ- Brahmavādins; vadanti- say:

kiṃ kāraṇaṃ – by what cause; brahama – (is) Brahma? kutaḥ- from where; sma jātā – we are born; kena- by what; jīvāma- live; kva ca – and where; saṃpratiṣṭhāḥ- supported, established; adhiṣṭhitāḥ kena – regulated by or depending upon whom; sukhetareṣu- in pleasure and pain; vartāmahe- we get along, live on; brahmavidaḥ- knowers of Brahma; vyavasthām- in steadiness, composure.

Verse meaning: Brahmavādins say thus:

By what cause is Brahma? Whence are we born? By what do we live? Where are we established? Depending upon whose power, do we, the knowers of Brahman, remain in composure during the dual experiences of pleasure and pain?

It is very important that these questions are raised by Brahmavits. They know what Brahma is and are Brahmavādins too. So, their questions carry much philosophical importance. Even though they know Brahma and abide by that knowledge in their lives, they still doubt the extent of status of Brahma as a cause. To them, it is not the ultimate cause from which beings arise, by which they are sustained and on which they are established. They feel that there is some ultimate principle beyond Brahma facilitating all these things; their enquiry is to know that principle, the knowledge of which, according to them, enables the Brahmavits to maintain equanimity in the face of both pleasure and pain. Thus, they start the enquiry. The progress of their thoughts is given in the next verse:

कालः स्वभावो नियतिर्यदृच्छा भूतानि योनिः पुरुष इति चिन्त्या |
संयोग एषां न त्वात्मभावात् आत्माप्यनीशः सुखदुःखहेतोः || 1.2 ||

kālaḥ svabhāvo niyatiryadṛcchā bhūtāni yoniḥ puruṣa iti cintyā;
saṃyoga eṣāṃ na tvātmabhāvāt ātmāpyanīśaḥ sukhaduḥkhahetoḥ. (1.2)

Word meaning: kālaḥ- Time; svabhāvaḥ- Nature; niyatiḥ- destiny; yadṛcchā- chance; bhūtāni- the five fundamental elements (Pañcabhūtas); yoniḥ- the source of birth; puruṣa- the source of seed (germ); iti cintyā – these are to be considered;

saṃyoga- combination; eṣāṃ- of these; na tu – if not; ātmabhāvāt- by appearance of Ātmā; ātmāpi (Ātmā api) – though Ātmā is; anīśaḥ- not the ruler of; sukhaduḥkhahetoḥ- of the cause of happiness and misery.

Verse meaning: Time, Nature, destiny, chance, Pañcabhūtas, the source of birth, the source of seed – these are all to be considered (in the enquiry into the cause). It (the origin, etc. mentioned in verse 1.1) may be due to a combination of all these. If not, it must be by appearance of Ātmā, though Ātmā is not the ruler administering the cause of happiness and misery.

Evidently, Brahmavādins are considering many possible options. The final suggestion however is regarding appearance of Ātmā; but, at the same time they recognise that Ātmā is not the dispenser of happiness and misery which are mere outputs of wavering perceptions (which do not affect sthitaprajñas – men with composure). Yoni and Puruṣa here represent the female and male counterparts in the couple giving birth to new beings.

The pondering of the Brahmavādins culminates in a valuable finding which we can see in verse 1.3:

ते ध्यानयोगानुगता अपश्यन् देवात्मशक्तिं स्वगुणैर्निगूढाम् |
यः कारणानि निखिलानि तानि कालात्मयुक्तान्यधितिष्ठत्येकः || 1.3 ||

te dhyānayogānugatā apaśyan devātmaśaktiṃ svaguṇairnigūḍhām;
yaḥ kāraṇāni nikhilāni tāni kālātmayuktānyadhitiṣṭhatyekaḥ. (1.3)

Word meanings: te- they; dhyānayoga- profound meditation; anugatā- being absorbed in; apaśyan- recognised, realised; devātmaśaktiṃ- the divine power of Ātmā; svaguṇaiḥ- by own Guṇas; rnigūḍhām- veiled; yaḥ- who; kāraṇāni- the causes; nikhilāni- entire; tāni- those; kālātmayuktāni- conditioned by time; adhitiṣṭhati- control, superintend; ekaḥ- the one (without a second).

Verse meaning: Through the path of profound meditation they recognised the divine power of Ātmā, veiled by the Guṇas of its own projection; He, the only one without a second, encompasses and superintends all those causes which are conditioned by time.

The Brahmavādins finally found what they sought for; they realised that everything here is a projection of Ātmā and He is veiled by this projection consisting of Guṇas. It is because of this veil that He is not conspicuous. Bṛhadāraṇyaka says that this veil is like a sheath which covers the entire sword within (1.4.7). Gīta says in verse 7.13 that because of the three Guṇas, people are deluded and are unable to comprehend the imperishable power of Ātmā. Being the ultimate principle of existence, Ātmā is the source and sustainer of all that exists including time, nature, etc. It is therefore stated that Ātmā encompasses and superintends all these causes.

In the next two verses, an ever-moving wheel is introduced; it is called Brahmacakra (ब्रह्मचक्र). This wheel consists of all that exists as the manifested phenomenal universe which is subject to continuous changes featuring manifold characteristics and attributes. The wheel is said to be spinning because of these continuous changes including expansion or contraction. This may be rightly presumed as the aggregate of all the existing galaxies. Ātmā is the impelling force in this wheel. Verse 1.6 says that by knowing the Ātmā to be distinct from the appearance and by attaining to Him, one becomes immortal. See the verse below:

सर्वाजीवे सर्वसंस्थे बृहन्ते अस्मिन्हंसो भ्राम्यते ब्रह्मचक्रे |
पृथगात्मानं प्रेरितारं च मत्वा जुष्टस्ततस्तेनामृतत्वमेति || 1.6 ||

sarvājīve sarvasaṃsthe bṛhante asminhaṃso bhrāmyate brahmacakre;
pṛthagātmānaṃ preritāraṃ ca matvā juṣṭastatastenāmṛtatvameti. (1.6)

Verse meaning: sarvājīve- providing livelihood (or means of existence) for all; sarvasaṃsthe- omnipresent; bṛhante- infinite; asmin- upon this; haṃsaḥ- individual being; bhrāmyate- is moved around; brahmacakre- in Brahmacakra; pṛthak- to be distinct; ātmānaṃ- Ātmā; preritāraṃ- driving force; ca- and; matvā- having known; juṣṭaḥ-attained; tataḥ- thereupon; tena- by that; āmṛtatvameti- become immortal.

Verse meaning: Every individual being is moved around in this omnipresent, infinite Brahmacakra which supports the existence of all. By knowing Ātmā to be distinct from and as the driving force of this Brahmacakra and by attaining to it, one becomes immortal.

Brahmacakra indicates Brahma differentiated into forms and names, as per descriptions already given. We know that Ātmā is the force behind this differentiation (Muṇḍaka 1.1.8 & 1.1.9). This verse says that by so distinguishing the Ātmā as distinct from the differentiated Brahma and by attaining to Him, one becomes immortal.

In the ensuing verses, the Upaniṣad describes how Ātmā rules over the dual constituents of Brahma, which we studied in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 2.3.1 to be the perceptible and imperceptible, mortal and immortal, etc. Let us first see verse 1.8.

संयुक्तमेतत् क्षरमक्षरं च व्यक्ताव्यक्तं भरते विश्वमीशः |
अनीशश्चात्मा बध्यते भोक्तृभावात् ज्ञात्वा देवं मुच्यते सर्वपाशैः|| 1.8 ||

saṃyuktametat kṣaramakṣaraṃ ca vyaktāvyaktaṃ bharate viśvamīśaḥ;
anīśaścātmā badhyate bhoktṛbhāvāt jñātvā devaṃ mucyate sarvapāśaiḥ. (1.8)

Word meaning: saṃyuktam- combined; etat- this; kṣaramakṣaraṃ ca – perishable and imperishable; vyaktāvyaktaṃ- perceptible and imperceptible; bharate- supports; viśvam- universe; īśaḥ- Ruler; anīśaścātmā – and on Ātmā not being the Ruler, (when Ātmā is not heeded as the Ruler); badhyate- gets bonded; bhoktṛbhāvāt – due to one’s being assumed as the enjoyer; jñātvā- on knowing; devaṃ- Deva (Ātmā); mucyate- freed; sarvapāśaiḥ- from all bondages.

Verse meaning: This universe is a combination of the perishable and imperishable, of the perceptible and imperceptible; it is supported by the Ruler (Ātmā). When one does not comply with the dictates of Ātmā, he gets bonded due to his being assumed as the enjoyer. On knowing the Ātmā he is freed from all bondages.

The main theme here is the dual nature of the universe, which we are familiar with. The verse also says that when one denies Ātmā as the ruler, he gets bonded. This denial implies that he is without ruler, anīśa. He himself becomes the ruler and the enjoyer. Thus he strays away from the ruling principle of Ātmā and therefore gets bonded; but, a person who does actions in conformity with the principle of Ātmā, does not get bonded like him. Conformity with the principle of Ātmā is what we know as Dharma.

In the next verse, this dual nature is taken to a higher level, explaining the agent who joins them together. It is verily Māyā. This Upaniṣad itself says in verse 4.10 that Māyā is Prakṛti herself. We have already studied that Māyā or Prakṛti is the power of Ātmā for appearing in various forms and names. The two names Māyā and Prakṛti veritably indicate two functions of the same entity, the power of illusion and the ability to express physical energy, respectively. We have already learned about this two-pronged activity of Prakṛti. Let us see what the present verse says.

ज्ञाज्ञौ द्वावजावीशनीशावजा ह्येका भोक्तृभोग्यार्थयुक्ता |
अनन्तश्चात्मा विश्वरूपो ह्यकर्ता त्रयं यदा विन्दते ब्रह्ममेतत् || 1.9 ||

jñājñau dvāvajāvīśanīśāvajā hyekā bhoktṛbhogyārthayuktā;
anantaścātmā viśvarūpo hyakartā trayaṃ yadā vindate brahmametat. (1.9)

Word meaning: jña- the knower; ajña- the known; dvau- two; ajau- (both are) unborn; īśaḥ- ruler; anīśaḥ- the ruled; ajā- (she is) unborn; hi- indeed; ekā- (she is) one; bhoktṛbhogyārthayuktā – (she) who joins the enjoyer and the enjoyed;
anantaḥ- infinite; ca- and; ātmā- Ātmā; viśvarūpaḥ- appearing in all forms; akartā- not active, non-doer; trayaṃ- three; yadā- when; vindate- knows; brahma- Brahma; etat- this.

Verse meaning: The knower and the known, the ruler and the ruled are both unborn. She who joins these two, the enjoyer and the enjoyed, is also unborn. When one knows these three as (constituting) the Brahma, he realises Ātmā to be infinite and inactive and also appearing in all forms.

In this triad, that which is known and that which joins it with the knower are two facets of Prakṛti. The knower is Puruṣa who is Ātmā Himself when Prakṛti is invoked. All these three constitute Ātmā appearing in infinite forms and names; this is what Brahma is, which we have seen repeatedly in other Upaniṣads. In this combination, Ātmā remains inactive, though he presides over all actions. He is the inner urge; but the expression of this urge is done through Prakṛti only. Whatever is expressed through Prakṛti is tinted by its limitations and hues. Those who understand the urge and also the identity of its source are not carried away by the vagaries and temptations of the said expression. Such understanding is called Vidya or knowledge and the absence thereof is Avidya.

The inactivity of Ātmā mentioned in this verse is a recurrent idea in Gīta. In verses 3.27, 13.29, 14.19 and 18.16 it is said that Ātmā is not the doer; Gīta asserts that all actions are done because of the Guṇas of Prakṛti.

In the combination mentioned above, two parts are distinguishable, perishable and imperishable (as already stated in Bṛhadāraṇyaka 2.3.1 also). The mortal part is Prakṛti and the immortal part is Puruṣa; Ātmā is the ruler of both. It is stated in the next verse that, on attaining to him, all illusions by Prakṛti, come to an end. See the verse below:

क्षरं प्रधानममृताक्षरं हरः क्षरात्मानावीशते देव एकः |
तस्याभिध्यानाद्योजनात्तत्त्वभावात् भूयश्चान्ते विश्वमायानिवृत्तिः || 1.10 ||

kṣaraṃ pradhānamamṛtākṣaraṃ haraḥ kṣarātmānāvīśate deva ekaḥ; tasyābhidhyānādyojanāttattvabhāvāt bhūyaścānte viśvamāyānivṛttiḥ. (1.10)

Word meaning: kṣaraṃ- perishable; pradhānam- primary un-evolved matter (this is a reference to Prakṛti since it is the cause of this matter); amṛtākṣaraṃ- imperishable and immortal; haraḥ- one who carries or bears (means Puruṣa who is Ātmā himself); kṣarātmānau- the perishable and the Puruṣa; īśate- rules over; deva- Deva; ekaḥ- one (without a second); tasya- his; abhidhyānāt- by meditation; yojanāt- by merging with; tattvabhāvāt- by true nature; bhūyaḥ- thereafter; ca- and; ante- at the end; viśvamāyānivṛttiḥ- cessation of all illusions.

Verse meaning: Prakṛti is perishable and Puruṣa is imperishable and immortal. The Deva who rules over both of them is only one (without a second). By merging with His true nature through meditation, all illusions cease at the end.

The Deva mentioned here is verily Ātmā. The same idea as in verses 1.9 & 1.10 is explained in verses 1.11 and 1.12 also. Verse 1.13 says that Ātmā exists in beings like fire exists in its source (twin pieces of Araṇi wood) – unperceived, but not absent. Fire appears only when the pieces of wood are struck with each other; like this, Ātmā becomes known when the body is kindled by Praṇava (Om). Suggesting meditation as the method of this kindling, the next verse (1.14) urges to practise this method continuously and perceive the concealed Ātmā.

Verses 1.15 and 1.16 say about the nature and pervasion of this Ātmā. See the verse 1.15 first:

तिलेषु तैलं दधिनीव सर्पिरापः स्रोतःस्वरणीषु चाग्निः |
एवमात्मात्मनि गृह्यतेऽसौ सत्येनैनं तपसा योऽनुपश्यति || 1.15 ||

tileṣu tailaṃ dadhinīva sarpirāpaḥ srotaḥsvaraṇīṣu cāgniḥ;
evamātmātmani gṛhyate’sau satyenainaṃ tapasā yo’nupaśyati. (1.15)

Word meaning: tileṣu- in sesame seeds; tailaṃ- oil; dadhini- in curd; iva- just as, like that; sarpiḥ- butter; āpaḥ- water; srotaḥsu- in spring; araṇīṣu- in pieces of Araṇi wood; ca- and; agniḥ- fire; evam- in this way; ātmā- Ātmā; ātmani- within oneself, in own self; gṛhyate- is grasped; asau- this; satyena tapasā – by sincere tapas (by unflagging dedication and relentless effort); enaṃ- him; yaḥ- who; anupaśyati- reflect upon ….

Verse meaning: Just as oil in sesame seeds, butter in curd, water in spring and fire in pieces of Araṇi wood, this Ātmā remains imperceptible within everything. One who reflects upon Him by sincere tapas (perceives Him as such).

The phrase ‘this Ātmā’ is a reference to what is mentioned in the verses 1.13 & 1.14. It is declared in the next verse that the Ātmā which thus pervades everywhere is the Brahma. See the verse below:

सर्वव्यापिनमात्मानं क्षीरे सर्पिरिवार्पितम् |
आत्मविद्यातपोमूलं तद्ब्रह्मोपनिषत्परं || 1.16 ||

sarvavyāpinamātmānaṃ kṣīre sarpirivārpitam;
ātmavidyātapomūlaṃ tadbrahmopaniṣatparaṃ. (1.16)

Word meaning: sarvavyāpinam- pervading all; ātmānaṃ- Ātmā; kṣīre- in milk; sarpiḥ- butter; iva- like, as; arpitam- infixed; ātmavidyātapomūlaṃ- the basis of Ātmavidyā and tapas (Ātmavidyā is the instruction on Ātmā); tat- (perceive) that (as instructed in verse 1.14); brahmopaniṣatparaṃ – Brahma beyond Upaniṣads (Brahma taught by Upaniṣads).

Verse meaning: Ātmā is pervading all, like butter is infixed in milk and He is the basis of Ātmavidyā and tapas; know that Ātmā to be Brahma taught by Upaniṣads.

Kaṭha Upaniṣad says in 2.15 that the basis of all tapas, study of Vedas and observance of chastity is the syllable ‘Om’, which represents Ātmā. This is what the word ‘ātmavidyātapomūlaṃ’ expresses here. The verse says that Ātmā which pervades everything is Brahma. The clause that qualifies Ātmā here is not a mere adjectival clause, but it states a condition. Its implication is that Ātmā is Brahma when He is in the state of pervading all; when Ātmā remains within Himself, with all the manifestations withdrawn, He is not Brahma. This is what the verse conveys.

Chapter 2 opens with some prescriptions of physical disciplines that may help in attaining to the ultimate principle. These disciplines consist of controlling the mind and senses. Verse 2.14 says that like a mirror with dust shines brilliantly when cleaned, one gets devoid of miseries and becomes fully contented when he knows the ultimate principle.

It is declared in verse 2.15 that like a lamp helps in sighting objects, the principle of Ātmā helps in getting true knowledge of Brahma. When one knows Ātmā as unborn, eternal and free from modifications, he gets relieved from all bondages. Verse 2.16 affirms that Ātmā is all-pervading; He is the manifesting principle and exists in all beings as the subtle entity.

In chapter 3 we see a detailed description on the nature of Ātmā. Verse 3.1 says that those who know the one and only one Ātmā ruling the entire world with His power of Māyā, become immortal; Ātmā is the one from whom, in the beginning, the worlds emerged and to whom, in the end, the worlds will merge. This idea is further discussed in various dimensions in the next few verses and the discussion concludes in verses 3.9 and 3.10. We may consider these verses now.

यस्मात्परं नापरमस्ति किंचित् यस्मान्नाणीयो न ज्यायोऽस्ति कश्चित् |
वृक्ष इव स्तब्धो दिवि तिष्ठत्येकः तेनेदं पूर्णं पुरुषेण सर्वम् || 3.9 ||

yasmātparaṃ nāparamasti kiṃcit yasmānnāṇīyo na jyāyo’sti kaścit;
vṛkṣa iva stabdho divi tiṣṭhatyekaḥ tenedaṃ pūrṇaṃ puruṣeṇa sarvam. (3.9)

Word meaning: yasmāt- than whom; paraṃ- beyond; na- not; aparam- any other; asti- exists; kiṃcit- anything; aṇīyaḥ- subtler; jyāyaḥ- grosser; kaścit- anyone;
vṛkṣa- tree; iva- just as; stabdhaḥ- unmoving; divi- in resplendence; tiṣṭhati- dwells; ekaḥ- only one; tena- by Him; idaṃ- this, here; pūrṇaṃ- full; puruṣeṇa- by Puruṣa; sarvam- all.

Verse meaning: All this (the entire universe) is full with the one and only one Puruṣa who dwells in resplendence and is unmoving like a tree; there is nothing beyond him and none subtler or grosser than him.

We already know that Puruṣa is Ātmā with Prakṛti invoked. The phrase ‘dwells in resplendence’ means that Puruṣa is pure resplendence. He is unmoving since he fills everywhere; no space is left for him to move about. Regarding subtlety and grossness we have already discussed them in Chāndogya 3.14.2 & 3.14.3, Kaṭha 2.20 and Muṇḍaka 3.1.7.

Now we may see verse 3.10. It says that those who know the said Puruṣa become immortal, while others get grieved.

ततो यदुत्तरतरं तदरूपमनामयम् |
य एतद्विदुरमृतास्ते भवन्ति अथेतरे दुःखमेवापियन्ति || 3.10 ||

tato yaduttarataraṃ tadarūpamanāmayam;
ya etadviduramṛtāste bhavanti athetare duḥkhamevāpiyanti. (3.10)

Word meaning: tataḥ- than that (than the visible universe referred to in the previous verse); yat- what, that which; uttarataraṃ- far higher; tat- that; arūpam- formless; anāmayam- free from afflictions; yaḥ- who; etat- this; viduḥ- know; amṛtāḥ- immortal; te- they; bhavanti- become; atha- but; itare- the others; duḥkham- misery; eva- indeed, only; apiyanti- go into, suffer.

Verse meaning: That which is far higher than the visible universe is formless and free from afflictions. Those who know this become immortal and others suffer misery.

The reference here is obviously to Puruṣa who is Ātmā. It is a sustained message in Upaniṣads that knowledge of Ātmā leads to immortality. The phrase ‘far higher than’ indicates subtlety.

In the next three verses, the Upaniṣad elaborates on the pervasion of Puruṣa in universe. It is said that Puruṣa dwells in the inner-most part of beings sustaining them all. He is said to be of thumb-size; this is a reference to the Heart (Thalamus), the centre of consciousness within the body, the size of which approximates to thumb. It is also reiterated that those who know him become immortal.

The next two verses (3.14 and 3.15) are the first two hymns of Puruṣa Sukta of Ṛgveda (10.90). The importance of Puruṣa Sukta is that it contains some sparks of the basic thoughts constituting the foundation on which spiritual philosophy of India evolved in course of later ages. Ṛsi Narāyaṇa is its revealer and Puruṣa is the Devatā. See the verses below:

सहस्रशीर्षा पुरुषः सहस्राक्षः सहस्रपात् |
स भूमिं विश्वतो वृत्वा अत्यतिष्ठद्दशाङ्गुलम् || 3.14 ||

sahasraśīrṣā puruṣaḥ sahasrākṣaḥ sahasrapāt;
sa bhūmiṃ viśvato vṛtvā atyatiṭhaddaśāṅgulam. (3.14)

Word meaning: sahasraśīrṣā- with thousand heads; puruṣaḥ- Puruṣa; sahasrākṣaḥ- with thousand eyes; sahasrapāt- with thousand feet; saḥ- He; bhūmiṃ- the world; viśvato- from all sides; vṛtvā- having enveloped; atyatiṣṭhat- extends by, transcends; daśāṅgulam- by ten fingers.

Verse meaning: The Puruṣa is with thousand heads, thousand eyes and thousand feet. Having enveloped the world from all sides He extends further by ten fingers.

The word ‘thousand’ indicates innumerability; the reference of thousand heads, eyes and feet is an allusion to the all-pervasive nature of Puruṣa. Extending by ten fingers means that Puruṣa is not contained within the world, but the world is located within Him; He holds the world. Gīta 9.4 declares thus: ‘all beings abide in Me: and I do not dwell in them’. Gīta further says in 9.5 thus: ‘I hold the beings and I am not within them’.

पुरुष एवेदं सर्वं यद्भूतं यच्च भव्यम् |
उतामृतत्वस्येशानो यदन्नेनातिरोहति || 3.15 ||

puruṣa evedaṃ sarvaṃ yadbhūtaṃ yacca bhavyam;
utāmṛtatvasyeśāno yadannenātirohati. (3.15)

Word meaning: puruṣa- Puruṣa; eva- indeed, certainly; idaṃ sarvaṃ – this all; yadbhūtaṃ- that which existed in the past; yacca bhavyam – and that which will come to exist in future; uta- and; amṛtatvasyeśāno- dispenser of immortality, the sustainer; yadannenātirohati – that which grows by food (living beings).

Verse meaning: Puruṣa indeed is all that exists at present, that existed in the past and that will exist in future; He is the dispenser of immortality to all that grows by food.

Dispenser of immortality means the provider of the immortal part of beings. We know that all beings have a mortal part and an immortal part; for, Brahma has two forms (Bṛhadāraṇyaka 2.3.1) and therefore, beings originated by its expansion also must have two forms, namely mortal and immortal. The mortal part comes from Prakṛti and the immortal part from Puruṣa. This is the idea.

The next two verses are explanations to the Vedic hymns quoted above. Verse 3.16 says that Puruṣa has hands, feet, eyes, heads, mouths and ears everywhere; He exists enclosing everything. This verse is same as verse 13.13 of Gīta. Verse 3.17 also is seen partially reproduced in Gīta as verse 13.14. It says that He is without senses, but He is the light of all senses; He is the Ruler and refuge of all. Combining these two verses together, we have to understand that Puruṣa is inherently devoid of senses and other organs, but he possesses all the organs of all the beings belonging to the manifestation.

In continuation of the above idea, the next verse asserts the greatness of Puruṣa in precise terms. See the verse below:

अपाणिपादो जवनो ग्रहीता पश्यत्यचक्षुः स शृणोत्यकर्णः |
स वेत्ति वेद्यं न च तस्यास्ति वेत्ता तमाहुरग्र्यं पुरुषं महान्तम् || 3.19 ||

apāṇipādo javano grahītā paśyatyacakṣuḥ sa śṛṇotyakarṇaḥ;
sa vetti vedyaṃ na ca tasyāsti vettā tamāhuragryaṃ puruṣaṃ mahāntam. (3.19)

Word meaning: apāṇipādaḥ- without hands and feet; javanaḥ- moving quickly; grahītā- grasping; paśyati- sees; acakṣuḥ- without eyes; saḥ- He; śṛṇoti- hears; akarṇaḥ- without ears; vetti- knows; vedyaṃ- that which is to be known; na- not; ca- and; tasya- His; asti- exists; vettā- knower; tamāhuragryaṃ – He is said to be primal; puruṣaṃ- Puruṣa; mahāntam- great.

Verse meaning: He moves quickly without feet, grasps without hands, sees without eyes and hears without ears. He knows all that is to be known; but, there is none who knows Him. He is said to be the great primal Puruṣa.

The verse implies that Puruṣa is the facilitator of all the actions done with the ten senses; all those actions become possible because of Him only.

The next verse (3.20) is same as verse 2.20 of Kaṭha, except a minor difference in arrangement of words. The verse says about subtlety and grossness of Puruṣa, which we have seen many a time.

The fourth chapter discourses on the manifestation and pervasion of Puruṣa. The first verse therein says that Puruṣa, who is One without a second and devoid of ‘covering’ (envelop), projects many coverings out of unknown intentions. The word used here to mean ‘covering’ is varṇa (वर्ण) which has got many meanings like colour, type, etc. Here, the context takes the meaning, ‘covering’; for, manifestations are like coverings (envelopes) of Puruṣa. His original state is devoid of coverings.

In the next few verses, Puruṣa is described as the ruling force of the entire universe. Then, in verses 4.6 and 4.7, the two roles of Puruṣa in every being are presented by means of an allegory of two birds, which we have studied in great detail in verses 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 of Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad.

Turning to verse 4.10 we find an important declaration which is not seen in any Principal Upaniṣad. Here is the verse:

मायां तु प्रकृतिं विद्यात् मायिनं तु महेश्वरम् |
तस्यावयव भूतैस्तु व्याप्तं सर्वमिदं जगत् || 4.10 ||

māyāṃ tu prakṛtiṃ vidyāt māyinaṃ tu maheśvaram;
tasyāvayava bhūtaistu vyāptaṃ sarvamidaṃ jagat. (4.10)

Word meaning: māyāṃ- Māyā (illusion); tu- (an expletive); prakṛtiṃ- Prakṛti; vidyāt- know; māyinaṃ- the Lord of Māyā (Illusionist); maheśvaram- the Great Īśa (Puruṣa);
tasya- His; avayava- body parts; bhūtaiḥ- by beings; vyāptaṃ- filled; sarvamidaṃ jagat – all this world.

Verse meaning: Know that Māyā is Prakṛti and the Lord of Māyā is Puruṣa. The entire world is filled by beings which are His body parts.

This verse declares that Māyā and Prakṛti are same; the difference in names indicates only the diverse functions. As already mentioned above, Māyā causes illusion and Prakṛti provides the material for it. Both these functions are done by the same power of Ātmā that is used to appear variously.

The main message in the verses that follow is that by knowing Puruṣa, one gets immortality; nature of Puruṣa is also dealt with in them. It is stated in these verses that Puruṣa is the entity from whom the universe emerges and to whom it merges; He is the origin of all Devas; He encompasses the entire universe; He dwells in the Hearts of beings; He bestows the knowing power (Prañā – प्रज्ञा); His name is great glory; He has no creator; and He is not perceivable by the senses. These are all characteristics which we have already studied in other Upaniṣads and therefore, no detailed study is warranted here.

Now we move on to chapter 5. The subject of discussion therein is how Ātmā projects beings and how He sustains and withdraws them. In verse 5.1 a new concept is introduced connecting Vidyā (knowledge – enlightenment) and Avidyā (ignorance) with immortality and mortality respectively. The verse is given below:

द्वे अक्षरे ब्रह्मपरे त्वनन्ते विद्याविद्ये निहिते यत्र गूढे |
क्षरं त्वविद्या ह्यमृतं तु विद्या विद्याविद्ये ईशते यस्तु सोऽन्यः || 5.1 ||

dve akṣare brahmapare tvanante vidyāvidye nihite yatra gūḍhe;
kṣaraṃ tvavidyā hyamṛtaṃ tu vidyā vidyāvidye īśate yastu so’nyaḥ. (5.1)

Word meaning: dve- two, both; akṣare- in immortal; brahmapare- in Brahmapara, in the subtlety of Brahma; anante- in the infinite; vidyāvidye- Vidyā and Avidyā; nihite- lie deposited or hidden; yatra- where; gūḍhe- secretly; kṣaraṃ- mortal, perishable; tu- but; avidyā- Avidyā; hi-indeed; amṛtaṃ- immortal; vidyā- Vidyā; īśate- rules; yaḥ- who; saḥ- He; anyaḥ- another, different person.

Verse meaning: Both Vidyā and Avidyā lie hidden secretly in the immortal, infinite, subtle Brahma. Of these, Avidyā is mortal and Vidyā is immortal. But, the One who rules over both is another (different from both).

Vidyā implies knowledge of the supreme principle, the Ātmā. We know from many declarations of the Upaniṣads, already studied by us, that this knowledge leads to immortality. We have had sufficient discussions on immortality too. Avidyā is the opposite of Vidyā and therefore it obviously implies absence of the knowledge of Ātmā. This verse says that both of them are hidden in the subtlety of Brahma; subtlety denotes the undifferentiated state of Brahma. We know that mortality and immortality are two facets of Brahma (vide Bṛhadāraṇyaka 2.3.1). The verse here further says that He who rules over both is entirely different from them. He is the One who rules over the whole of Brahma; He is Ātmā.

In the next three verses the Upaniṣad reiterates that Puruṣa superintends all sources of birth and all forms of beings; He projects and withdraws beings again and again and through that process exercises full control over them.

Verses 5.5 and 5.6 examine the relation between Ātmā and Brahma. Let us consider them together.

यच्च स्वभावं पचति विश्वयोनिः पाच्यांश्च सर्वान् परिणामयेद्यः |
सर्वमेतद्विश्वमधितिष्ठत्येको गुणांश्च सर्वान् विनियोजयेद्यः || 5.5

yacca svabhāvaṃ pacati viśvayoniḥ pācyāṃśca sarvān pariṇāmayedyaḥ; sarvametadviśvamadhitiṣṭhatyeko guṇāṃśca sarvān viniyojayedyaḥ. (5.5)

Word meaning: yat- which; ca- and; svabhāvaṃ- inherent nature; pacati- makes evident, manifest; viśvayoniḥ- the source of universe; pācyān- those made evident; sarvān- all; pariṇāmayet- bring to an end; yaḥ- who; sarvametadviśvam- all this world; adhitiṣṭhati- superintends; ekaḥ- the One; guṇān- Guṇas; sarvān- all; viniyojayet- employ.

तद्वेदगुह्योपनिषत्सु गूढं तद्ब्रह्मा वेदते ब्रह्मयोनिम् |
ये पूर्वं देवा ऋषयश्च तद्विदुः ते तन्मया अमृता वै बभूवुः || 5.6 ||

tadvedaguhyopaniṣatsu gūḍhaṃ tadbrahmā vedate brahmayonim;
ye pūrvaṃ devā ṛṣayaśca tadviduḥ te tanmayā amṛtā vai babhūvuḥ. (5.6)

Word meaning: tat- that; vedaguhyopaniṣatsu- in the Upaniṣads which are the essence of Vedas; gūḍhaṃ- hidden; brahmā- the Lord Brahmā; vedate- knows; brahmayonim- source of Brahma; ye- who; pūrvaṃ- in the past; devāḥ- Devas; ṛṣayaḥ- Ṛsis; tat- that viduḥ- knew; te- they; tanmayā- absorbed in it; amṛtā- immortal; vai- verily, indeed; babhūvuḥ- became.

Verse meaning (of both the verses): That One who, being the source of the universe, manifests (his own) inherent nature and (in due course) withdraws all those thus manifested; who is the only One superintending the whole world; and who employs the Guṇas (for manifestation) – He is the hidden principle in Upaniṣads which are the essence of Vedas. Lord Brahmā knows Him to be the source of Brahma. Those Devas and Ṛsis who knew Him in the past verily became immortal.

In the first of the two verses, the nature of the entity is described variously (i) as the source of the universe, (ii) as the principle that manifests himself and later withdraws all that is so manifested, (iii) as the only One who superintends the whole world, and (iv) as the Ruler who employs Guṇas (for manifestation). In the second, it is said that Brahma originated from Him. All these are known facts for us. It is said here that Lord Brahmā knew Him to be the source of Brahma. Lord Brahmā is renowned as the Lord of speech (Vāgīśa) and therefore, He is mentioned to add credibility to the declaration.

We see two other outstanding declarations in verses 5.10 and 5.14; they are not seen in any Principal Upaniṣad. Let us first see verse 5.10.

नैव स्त्री न पुमानेष न चैवायं नपुंसकः |
यद्यच्छरीरमादत्ते तेन तेन स युज्यते || 5.10 ||

naiva strī na pumāneṣa na caivāyaṃ napuṃsakaḥ;
yadyaccharīramādatte tena tena sa yujyate. (5.10)

Word meaning: naiva strī – na eva strī – neither female; na pumān – nor male; eṣa- He; na caivāyaṃ napuṃsakaḥ – He is not neuter either; yadyat- whatever; śarīram- body; ādatte- assumes; tena tena – with each one of that; sa- He; yujyate- be identified accordingly.

Verse meaning: He is neither female, nor male; He is not neuter either. Whatever body is assumed, He becomes identified with it accordingly.

The declaration is important in that it categorically asserts Ātmā to be genderless. Now, we shall see verse 5.14:

भावग्राह्यमनीडाख्यं भावाभावकरं शिवम् |
कलासर्गकरं देवं ये विदुस्ते जहुस्तनुम् || 5.14 ||

bhāvagrāhyamanīḍākhyaṃ bhāvābhāvakaraṃ śivam;
kalāsargakaraṃ devaṃ ye viduste jahustanum. (5.14)

Word meaning: bhāvagrāhyam- conceived by the Heart; anīḍākhyaṃ- known to be incorporeal; bhāvābhāvakaraṃ- projecting and withdrawing; śivam- blissful;
kalāsargakaraṃ- integrating and disintegrating; devaṃ- Deva (Ātmā); ye- who; viduḥ- know; te- they; jahuḥ- give up; tanum- body, body consciousness.

Verse meaning: Ātmā can be conceived only by the Heart; He is known to be incorporeal; He projects and withdraws (beings); He integrates parts (to project beings) and disintegrates them; and He is blissful. Those who know Him give up body consciousness.

The verse says about giving up body. This does not mean committing suicide; it indicates only the giving up of body consciousness. This in turn implies relief from all bondages; it is mokṣa or perfect freedom. Such a person never gets affected by worldly concerns and never capitulates to Kāma. So, on knowing Ātmā one gets mokṣa and he becomes immortal too.

Chapter 6 deals with the supremacy and uniqueness of Ātmā. The verses in the chapter describe Ātmā as the One without a second who projects, sustains and withdraws the phenomenal world. We however concentrate on those verses which possess comparatively higher philosophical importance and on those which are generally believed to be very difficult to understand. Let us begin with verse 1.

स्वभावमेके कवयो वदन्ति कालं तथान्ये परिमुह्यमानाः |
देवस्येष महिमा तु लोके येनेदं भ्राम्यते ब्रह्मचक्रम् || 6.1 ||

svabhāvameke kavayo vadanti kālaṃ tathānye parimuhyamānāḥ;
devasyeṣa mahimā tu loke yenedaṃ bhrāmyate brahmacakram. (6.1)

Word meaning: svabhāvam- nature; eke- some; kavayo- scholars; vadanti- say; kālaṃ- Time; tathā- thus; anye- others; parimuhyamānāḥ- confused; devasya- of the Deva; eṣa- this; mahimā- power of manifestation (power to appear variously at will); tu- but; loke- in the world; yena- by whom; idaṃ- this; bhrāmyate- revolves; brahmacakram- Wheel of Brahma.

Verse meaning: Some scholars say that the Wheel of Brahma revolves because of its own nature, but some others say that it is because of Time. Both are confused. What we see in the world is the power of Deva (Puruṣa – Ātmā) to appear variously; the Wheel of Brahma revolves because of this power.

We have discussed about the Wheel of Brahma in the introduction to verse 1.6. Further details can be seen in the study of verse 1.6 itself. The message here is that the phenomenal world does not exist on its own. There is a subtle transcending power which is the energy behind it. Kaṭha 2.6 declares that those, who see nothing beyond the phenomenal world, are susceptible to recurring miseries.

Verse 6.2 clarifies the contention in 6.1 by elaborating the concept. See the verse below:

येनावृतं नित्यमिदं हि सर्वं ज्ञः कालकारो गुणी सर्वविद्यः |
तेनेशितं कर्म विवर्तते ह पृथिव्यप्तेप्तेजोऽनिलखानि चिन्त्यम् || 6.2 ||

yenāvṛtaṃ nityamidaṃ hi sarvaṃ jñaḥ kālakāro guṇī sarvavidyaḥ;
teneśitaṃ karma vivartate ha pṛthivyaptejo’nilakhāni cintyam. (6.2)

Word meaning: yena- by whom; āvṛtaṃ- enveloped; nityam- for ever; idaṃ- this; hi- indeed; sarvaṃ- all; jñaḥ- the knowing entity; kālakāraḥ- the initiator of time; guṇī- the Lord of Guṇas; sarvavid- omniscient; yaḥ- who; tena- by Him; īśitaṃ- ruled; karma- Karma; (tena- by Him); vivartate- come forth; ha- indeed; pṛthivyaptejo’nilakhāni- earth, water, fire, air and space (Pañcabhūtas); cintyam- to be conceived.

Verse meaning: It is because of the omniscient and knowing entity, the initiator of time and the Lord of Guṇas, that Karma gets actualised and Pañcabhūtas emerge; this is to be borne in mind.

The reference of ‘omniscient’, etc. obviously relates to Ātmā. This verse says that Ātmā is instrumental in the performance of Karma and that He stimulates the emergence of Pañcabhūtas. Therefore the Wheel of Brahma evidently revolves by this power.

The next two verses say about the connection between time and the continued existence of manifestation and why Ātmā is not affected by Karmas. Incidentally, these two verses are considered to be a hard nut for interpreters. Let us therefore approach them with caution. The two verses are connected with each other and therefore we are to consider them together.

तत्कर्म कृत्वा विनिवर्त्य भूयः तत्त्वस्य तत्त्वेन समेत्य योगम् |
एकेन द्वाभ्यां त्रिभिरष्टभिर्वा कालेन चैवात्मगुणैश्च सूक्ष्मैः || 6.3 ||

tatkarma kṛtvā vinivartya bhūyaḥ tattvasya tattvena sametya yogam;
ekena dvābhyāṃ tribhiraṣṭabhirvā kālena caivātmaguṇaiśca sūkṣmaiḥ. (6.3)

Word meaning: tat- that; karma- Karma; kṛtvā- having done; vinivartya- ceasing, taking a break; bhūyaḥ- again; tattvasya- to the element (to each of the Pañcabhūtas); tattvena- by the element; sametya yogam – joining together; ekena dvābhyāṃ tribhiraṣṭabhirvā- by one, twos or by threes and eights; kālena- by time; caiva- and surely; ātmaguṇaiśca sūkṣmaiḥ – by own subtle Guṇas.

आरभ्य कर्माणि गुणान्वितानि भावांश्च सर्वान्विनियोजयेद्यः |
तेषामभावे कृतकर्मनाशः कर्मक्षये याति स तत्त्वतोऽन्यः || 6.4 ||

ārabhya karmāṇi guṇānvitāni bhāvāṃśca sarvānviniyojayedyaḥ;
teṣāmabhāve kṛtakarmanāśaḥ karmakṣaye yāti sa tattvato’nyaḥ. (6.4)

Word meaning: ārabhya- having begun; karmāṇi- Karmas; guṇānvitāni- with Guṇas; bhāvān- various mental states of beings; ca- and; sarvān- all (beings); viniyojayet- assign to or employ; yaḥ- who; teṣāmabhāve- in the absence of or being devoid of them (the bhāvāḥ); kṛtakarmanāśaḥ- dissolution of performed karma; karmakṣaye- on dissolution of karma; yāti- proceed to be, achieve; sa- He; tattvato’nyaḥ- different from tattva (from element).

Verse meaning (both verses together): Having done that Karma (the projection of Pañcabhūtas) He effects a pause; then He joins together elements with elements by employing their own subtle Guṇas and by connecting time in ones, twos, or threes and eights.

Having thus initiated Karmas employing Guṇas, He assigns various bhāvās to all beings. Being devoid of such bhāvās, all these Karmas performed by Him stand dissolved (He is not affected by them). As such, He remains in the state of being different from tattva (different from elements).

The first verse (6.3) says about the mode of projection of the phenomenal world. This takes place in two stages. The initial stage is projection of Pañcabhūtas. There is a break after the first stage; this implies that projection of new elements is discontinued. The second stage is projection of beings from Pañcabhūtas by their combination on the basis of subtle Guṇas and by linking with time. The measure of time is given here as one, two, or threes and eights. All are to be understood as units of time. One refers to one day or its multiples; ‘two’ refers to day and night; threes and eights are references to eight divisions of a day consisting of three hours each (Prahara or प्रहर is the name of each such division of time with a duration of three hours; that is why 3 x 8).

Verse 2.4.12 of Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad states that Pañcabhūtas are verily vijñānaghana (विज्ञानघन – mass of knowledge); it also states that all beings originate from them and on expiry of a given time merge into them. This revelation matches well with the teaching in verse 6.3 here.

The emergence of beings from Pañcabhūtas is by employing Guṇas and invoking time. According to the second verse (6.4), by initiating the emergence of beings the Puruṣa or Ātmā assigns bhāvās to beings. This simply means that with the assumption of bodies made of Pañcabhūtas, beings assume bhāvās on account thereof. Bhāvās are, as we have seen above, mental states of beings, the basis of which is the ‘I’ and ‘Mine’ consciousness. It is these bhāvās which cause attachment and bondage. In the absence of such bhāvās, the performed Karmas are incapable of causing attachment and bondage; this is mentioned in the verse as dissolution of Karmas. Since Puruṣa has no such bhāva, He is described in the verse to be different from or beyond the basic elements of projection of beings, the Pañcabhūtas.

In the next three verses, the Upaniṣad urges to realise the said Ātmā by constant meditation. Verses 8 and 9 contain an important declaration which is the leading theme of spiritual knowledge in some other religion originated outside India. Let us look at the verses one by one.

न तस्य कार्यं करणं च विद्यते न तत्समश्चाभ्यधिकश्च दृश्यते |
परास्य शक्तिर्विविधैव श्रूयते स्वाभाविकी ज्ञानबलक्रिया च || 6.8 ||

na tasya kāryaṃ karaṇaṃ ca vidyate na tatsamaścābhyadhikaśca dṛśyate;
parāsya śaktirvividhaiva śrūyate svābhāvikī jñānabalakriyā ca. (6.8)

Word meaning: na- not; tasya- His; kāryaṃ- to be done; karaṇaṃ- doing, activity; ca- and; vidyate- exist; tatsamaḥ- His equal; abhyadhikaḥ- superior; na dṛśyate- not seen, does not exist; asya- His; parāśaktiḥ- great power; vividhā- various; eva- surely; śrūyate- heard; svābhāvikī- natural, inherent; jñānabala- strength of knowledge; kriyā- composition.

Verse meaning: There exists nothing for Him to do; nor does He have any activity. None is equal or superior to Him. What is declared (in Vedas and all) is only about the various expressions of his great power and also about the strength and composition of his inherent knowledge.

The ‘He’ mentioned here is the ‘Lord of all lords, the God of all gods and the Ruler of all rulers’ (vide verse 6.7). The declaration about Him here is that none is equal or superior to Him, which is the key word of some other religious philosophy. This very same philosophy has been an established thought all through the spiritual literature of India, especially in the higher texts of Upaniṣad which originated in this land in very ancient times when the whole world was tottering with infantile conceptions. This verily is the message conveyed by the declarations in Upaniṣads about Ātmā being one without a second, His pervading the world, His being the origin and support of all, His being not surpassable, etc.; we have studied them all. Gīta says in verse 7.7 that there is nothing superior to Kṛṣṇa who is Ātmā. Apart from stating categorically that the Supreme God has no equal or superior, the Upaniṣads further declare that this God is simply a principle, Ātmā who is without body and who pervades all.

Regarding the absence of actions, Gīta says in verse 3.22 that no duty exists anywhere for Kṛṣṇa to do and nothing is there for Him to achieve. If He is still engaged in duties, it is because of His being currently in a human body.

Now see verse 6.9 below:

न तस्य कश्चित् पतिरस्ति लोके न चेशिता नैव च तस्य लिङ्गम् |
स कारणं करणाधिपाधिपो न चास्य कश्चित् जनिता न चाधिपः || 6.9 ||

na tasya kaścit patirasti loke na ceśitā naiva ca tasya liṅgam;
sa kāraṇaṃ karaṇādhipādhipo na cāsya kaścit janitā na cādhipaḥ. (6.9)

Word meaning: na- not; tasya- His; kaścit- anyone; patiḥ- master; asti-exists; loke- in the world; ca- and; īśitā- superior; naiva- nor even; liṅgam- sign, idol; sa- He; kāraṇaṃ- cause; karaṇādhipādhipaḥ- master of the mind (mind being the master of karaṇās, the organs of action); asya- His; janitā- originator; adhipaḥ- lord.

Verse meaning: He has no master in the world; nor any superior or idol. He is the cause (of all) and master of the mind; He has no father (originator) or lord.

Put in purely theological terms, this verse means that God has no father and no idol. He is without origin and is the Supreme Ruler of the world. This God, according to the previous verses, is the Lord of all lords; He is Ātmā.

Thus, the superiority and unity of Ātmā, the Supreme God who is only a bodiless principle, is unequivocally and unambiguously asserted in these two verses. But, in spite of being the land of origin of this supreme thought, that too, hundreds of years before the whole world had any glimpse of anything like it, India, as a people, has not lived up to that greatness, but instead, chose to continue with the primitive practices of yore in the name of religion. It is a matter of great pity that darkness is preferred to sublime light and mythology to rational philosophy. If religion is anything concerned with the practice of spiritual principles, its ultimate is the religion of Upaniṣads. But, in this land of Upaniṣads, even after thousands of years since the culminating thoughts of rational spiritual philosophy were revealed, the religion of Upaniṣads still remains a mere ideal. Upaniṣads contain the ultimate of spiritual philosophy beyond which no speculative enterprise can ever go. Indians are not utilising the strength of this supreme philosophy, even to a small extent. Resultantly, they remain vulnerable to the attacks of external ideals with lesser philosophic merit.

The message in the above two verses is taken further to new heights in the ensuing verses. See below verse 6.11.

एको देवः सर्वभूतेषु गूढः सर्वव्यापी सर्वभूतान्तरात्मा |
कर्माध्यक्षः सर्वभूताधिवासः साक्षी चेता केवलो निर्गुणश्च || 6.11 ||

eko devaḥ sarvabhūteṣu gūḍhaḥ sarvavyāpī sarvabhūtāntarātmā;
karmādhyakṣaḥ sarvabhūtādhivāsaḥ sākṣī cetā kevalo nirguṇaśca. (6.11)

Word meaning: ekaḥ- the one without a second; devaḥ- Deva; sarvabhūteṣu- in all beings; gūḍhaḥ- hidden; sarvavyāpī- all-pervading; sarvabhūtāntarātmā- the Ātmā within all beings; karmādhyakṣaḥ- the one who presides over all Karma, the impeller of Karma; sarvabhūtādhivāsaḥ- the abode of all beings; sākṣī- witness; cetā- consciousness; kevalaḥ- absolute; nirguṇaḥ- devoid of Guṇas; ca- and.

Verse meaning: There is only one Deva; He is the Ātmā within all; He is hidden in all beings, pervading them, impelling and witnessing all their Karma; He is the abode of all beings, pure consciousness and the absolute; He is also devoid of Guṇas.

This is the paramount revelation of Indian spiritual philosophy. The Deva or Īśwara or God is only one and He is the Ātmā within all. He is revealed as pure consciousness and the absolute. The phrase ‘hidden in all beings’ indicates the impossibility of grasping Him by the sense organs as well as His pervasion. Gīta verse 18.61 also declares that Īśwara is within everyone’s Heart. So, one need not look outwards in search of Īśwara; He is in every iota of all. As such, those who are in search of Īśwara should look inwards; all prayers are to be directed inwards. Prayers are nothing but intense willing; their fulfilment is determined by the intensity and perseverance with which they are made. We studied about it in the Science of Praśna Upaniṣad (verse 3.10).

We know that Ātmā is SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA and also that all Karmas of all beings result from the urge either to exist, or to know and express, or to derive happiness. These three urges originate directly from SAT, CHIT, and ĀNANDA respectively. It is because of this fact that Ātmā is stated as the impeller of Karma. Since He is without any organs of actions and He has nothing to be achieved, no action is executed by Him; he is said to be a witness only. He is without Guṇa since Prakṛti is the repository of Guṇas. Verse 6.11 thus encompasses all important features of what we understand as Ātmā and also states that this Ātmā is the Īśwara or God.

In the next verse, the Deva is said to be the one who controls the multitude of beings which are inherently incapable of self-movement. As stated above, it is the urge derived from Ātmā that makes the beings act in various ways; this is the way Ātmā controls all. The verse also says that Ātmā makes a single seed manifest as many; the seed is Himself and by invoking the manifesting power, the Prakṛti, He makes Himself many. Verses 6.12 and 6.13 declare that those who know Ātmā attain eternal bliss.

Verse 6.14 states that Ātmā is the only shining light and all beings shine because of His light. We saw the same verse in Kaṭha 5.15 and Muṇḍaka 2.2.10.

Another important declaration comes in verses 6.18 and 6.19. It asserts that Brahma was projected by Ātmā in the beginning.

यो ब्रह्माणं विदधाति पूर्वं यो वै वेदांश्च प्रहिणोति तस्मै |
तं ह देवमात्मबुद्धिप्रकाशं मुमुक्षुर्वै शरणमहं प्रपद्ये || 6.18 ||

yo brahmāṇaṃ vidadhāti pūrvaṃ yo vai vedāṃśca prahiṇoti tasmai;
taṃ ha devamātmabuddhiprakāśaṃ mumukṣurvai śaraṇamahaṃ prapadye. (6.18)

Word meaning: yaḥ- who; brahmāṇaṃ vidadhāti – projected Brahma; pūrvaṃ- previously, in the past; vai- indeed; vedān prahiṇoti – revealed Vedas; tasmai- to it;
Taṃ devam- in that Deva; ha- indeed; ātmabuddhiprakāśaṃ- brightening one’s buddhi; mumukṣuḥ- desirous of freedom from bondages; vai- indeed; ahaṃ – I; śaraṇam prapadye- seek refuge.

Verse meaning: Being desirous of freeing myself from worldly bondages, I seek refuge in that Deva who brightens up my Buddhi and who projected Brahma in the past and revealed Vedas to it.

The message of the verse is that those who realise Ātmā become free from bondages. Conversely, those, who eliminate all the bondages from inside, realise Ātmā. We have seen this message again and again previously. Two things specially mentioned in the verse are the brightening of Buddhi and projection of Brahma. It is consciousness that makes Buddhi shine; consciousness is a constituent of Ātmā and therefore brightening of Buddhi is truly done by Ātmā. When Ātmā invokes its power Prakṛti, He is known as Puruṣa; we know that this Prakṛti-Puruṣa combine is Brahma. So Brahma is verily projected by Ātmā. Brahma on expansion appears as the phenomenal world. The Vedas occurred to the meditative minds of the world, in the past. This is what the verse describes as revealing the Vedas to Brahma.

Verse 6.19 is a description of various characteristics of Ātmā. It is stated that Ātmā is without parts and activity, faultless, untainted, etc. He is like a mighty fire that burnt down all fuel and He is the supreme link that connects one to immortality. In the reference of ‘mighty fire burning all fuel’ the fire is pure knowledge and fuel is the world of sensual experiences. The implication is that pure knowledge burns down all attachments to the sensual world.

The next verse (6.20) declares in definite terms that without knowing Ātmā there cannot be any relief from misery.

यदा चर्मवदाकाशं वेष्टयिष्यन्ति मानवाः |
तदा देवमविज्ञाय दुःखस्यान्तो भविष्यति || 6.20 ||

yadā carmavadākāśaṃ veṣṭayiṣyanti mānavāḥ;
tadā devamavijñāya duḥkhasyānto bhaviṣyati. (6.20)

Word meaning: yadā- when; carmavadākāśaṃ- sky as a piece of hide; veṣṭayiṣyanti- will wrap up or envelop; mānavāḥ- men; tadā- then; devamavijñāya- without knowing Deva; duḥkhasya- of misery; antaḥ- end; bhaviṣyati- will occur

Verse meaning: End of miseries without knowing Deva will be possible, only when it is possible for men to envelop themselves with sky as a piece of hide.

The message is that miseries will not expire till one realises the Ātmā; no amount of prayers to Devas, no method of propitiation of deities and no number of pilgrimages to holy places will be effective in eliminating one’s miseries of worldly life. They can only be ended by realising the ultimate principle of Ātmā. That is why Muṇḍaka states in verse 1.2.7 that Yajñas (यज्ञ) with inferior Karmas prescribed in Purāṇas are fragile rafts to cross the ocean of worldly miseries.

Ṛsi Śvetāśvatara propounded this knowledge in the past, to Sannyāsins of the highest order. The Upaniṣad ends by an instruction that these teachings should be given, only to those sons and disciples who are well composed; such teachings will shine, only in those who have supreme devotion to the Deva (Ātmā) and the Guru.

Readers can contact the author by email at: karthiksreedhar@gmail.com

The following informs us as to why we need to avoid grains on Ekadashi days.

It is stated in the Padma Purana:

bhuyo-bhuyo drdha vani sryatam syata janah
na bhoktavyam na bhoktavyam na bhoktavyam harer dine

“O human beings, please listen, I tell you repeatedly with steadfast determination, please never eat any grains on the Day of Lord Hari (Ekadasi day, the Lord’s appearance day like Janmastami day etc.). Please never eat any food grains even by mistake on the Day of Lord Hari. Please do not eat grains on the Day of Lord Hari even if forced or compelled to do so.”

The reason to not eat food grains on Ekadasi is stated in the Vrihan Naradiya Purana thus:

yani kani ca papani brahma hatyadikani ca
annam asritya tiathanti samprapte hari vasare

“Every type of sin in this world, including the grievous sin of killing a Brahmana, reside in food grains on the Day of Lord Hari (Ekadasi and other fasting days). If grains are eaten on fasting days sins enter the body of that human being.”

The Hari Bhakti Vilasa states:

brahmacari grhastho va vanaprastho ‘thava yatih
ekadasyam hi bhunjano bhukte go-mamsam eva hi

“Whether a person is Brahmachari (unmarried celibate student), Grihastha (householder), Vanaprasthi (retired, elderly), Sanyasi (renounced person) or any other social order, if they eat food grains on Ekadasi, they acquire the same sin as that received by eating cow’s meat.”

The Skanda Purana also states:

matr ha pitr has caiva bhratr ha guru has tatha
ekadasyas tu ya bhunkte visnu-lokac cyuto bhavet

“Those who eat grains on Ekadasi and on the Day of Lord Hari (including Janmastami, Gaura Purnima etc.) obtain the sin equal to killing one’s own mother, own father, own brother and own Guru; and they cannot reach the spiritual world, which is why one should never eat grains on fasting days.”

One may think or say that fasting on Ekadasi days and the Lord’s appearance days are meant only for Vaisnava devotees and not for worshippers of Lord Siva or Durga etc. But the Padma Purana informs such people:

na saiva na ca saurohasaun na sakta gana sevakah
yo bhunkte vasare visnor jneyah pasvadiko hi sah

“Whether one is a follower of Lord Siva, the goddess Durga, Kali, Surya (sungod), Ganesa, Bhairava or any other demigod, they should avoid eating grains on the fasting days of Lord Hari (Ekadasis and other fasting days of Lord Hari). If one does not rigidly follow this rule and eats grains on fasting days they are considered worse than an animal.”

The Brihan Naradiya Purana states:

brahma-hatyadi papanam kathancin niskrtir bhavet
ekadasyat tu yo bhunkte niskrtir nasti kutracit

“By rigidly following religious and ritualistic processes one may become free from grievous sin like killing a Brahmana, but it is impossible to eliminate the sins of those who eat grains on Ekadasi days.”

It is written in the Skanda Purana that Lord Yamaraja (superintendent of hell) told his messengers not even to go near the immediate three generations of those who fast on Ekadasi days, even if they are lowborn and full of sin. But even if a pious person is learned in the four Vedas and performs rituals and is pure, but eats grains on Ekadasi days, they must be taken to hell to suffer. (The correct Ekadasi days are calculated each year and printed as a calendar and can be gotten upon request). If grain filled prasadam is given to a person on a fasting day it should be kept for consumption on the next day, but should not be consumed on the fasting day. Only fruits, roots (such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, tapioca, sago etc.) water, milk products, nuts, rock salt, Singhara flour, Kutu flower, Sama Rice (found in the Indian grocery stores) and prescribed medicines can be consumed on fasting days. Fasting on Ekadasis began in Satyayuga and everyone followed fasting rules then.

It is now time for us to conclude. We studied all the eleven most important Upaniṣads belonging to the corpus of spiritual thoughts of India, spanning over many centuries or even millennia. Innumerable studies and interpretations of the Upaniṣads had already taken place in different periods, in the past.

Our study, however, is different from all these conventional ones in that our focus was on unravelling the rational thoughts which are presented in the Upaniṣads with mythological encryption. We decoded all such encryptions and reached at the pure rational conceptions within. And, what did we see? The finest and the most sublime discovery that mankind has ever made on the existence of universe; it is the concept of Ātmā, the ultimate of all that exists. We found that Ātmā is only a principle, the constitution of which is SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA. This principle is the driving force and the ruler of the whole universe. Any movement occurring anywhere in the universe is in furtherance of the urge impelled by this principle. In fact, SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA is only an abstraction of the manifold activities in the universe into three basic urges namely, (i) to exist, (ii) to know and express and (iii) to derive happiness; these urges are respectively SAT, CHIT and ĀNANDA, which when merged together, like various colours in sunlight, are known as SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA or Ātmā. We further saw that this Ātmā is the only God and Lord of all, pervading all, and without any sign or idol. Ātmā projects the phenomenal world by invoking its power of Prakṛti or Māyā. With Prakṛti invoked, Ātmā is called Puruṣa; the Prakṛti-Puruṣa combine is Brahma, which, on expansion, projects the universe.

To put specifically, our study identified i) the precise nature of Ātmā, Puruṣa, Prakṛti and Brahma, (ii) the subtle difference between Ātmā and Brahma, (iii) the fact that the principle of SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA is only an abstraction of all activities in the universe, (iv) the fact that Thalamus, the centre of consciousness within, is the Heart revealed in scriptures as location of Ātmā in beings, and above all, (v) the existence of consistency and mutual corroboration of thoughts in all the eleven Upaniṣads. It is these findings that make our study distinct from conventional interpretations done in the past by enlightened Sannyasins and learned scholars. We have unfailingly conformed to these findings, all through our study. We also took particular care in presenting the study in a logical format so as to facilitate easy understanding.

Perception of Ātmā as the only God and the only Lord is the fundamental spiritual philosophy of the Upaniṣads. It is not another spiritual philosophy, but the ultimate one. It is the science of spirituality; for, it is purely rational, not based on unfounded beliefs or blind faith. All other spiritual philosophies, moral codes, social laws and all are derivatives of this philosophy, often expressed with varying degrees of adulteration effected by dogmas.

If the rational spiritual philosophy of the Upaniṣads also finds practical expression as a religion, as is usual with any other spiritual philosophy, it must be known as the ‘Religion of the Upaniṣads’. What is now being practised as the Hindu religion is only a highly corrupted version of this religion. Hindu religious practices have to undergo thorough reformation to live up to the most scientific spiritual philosophy of the world which constitutes their essence.

The religion of the Upaniṣads is the religion of ultimate freedom, a religion that promotes personal liberty. It does not require anybody to invariably follow a particular faith or to uphold any specified belief or to observe any prescribed rite or discipline; it is absolutely devoid of such demands and dictates. You are at liberty to ponder over whatever is preached to you and then accept only that which is felt reasonable; no dogmatism and no authoritarianism. This religion does not recognise the services of priests and mediators; it also does not recognise any differentiation between the God and the worshipper or between the leader and the follower. All is One; there is only ‘I’, all in One.

Religion of the Upaniṣads asserts unity of origin and unity of essence of all beings. It is all about transcending the diversity of external appearances and characteristics and attaining to the unity of inner essence. The spirit of this inner equality makes it devoid of all kinds of discrimination and hatred. It is the universal religion. What it presently lacks is proper dissemination of its principles. Effort to inculcate these principles in the minds of all has to start at the very stage of childhood. This is essential to illumine their future lives with positive values and broader vision of universal oneness.

All known religions possess various sets of prescriptions on rites and observances as a means to practise their distinct spiritual philosophy. These prescriptions mostly aim at appeasing the God of their perception, for favours of physical well-being. This appeasement is made by singing praises to that God, visualised in human form, and by offering presents in the form of money, gold and other valuables; this is akin to bribing some power-wielding, greedy mortals for securing protection and favours. In contrast, Religion of the Upaniṣads does not approve of this notion of appeasement. For, it does not consider God as a glorified being in human form, amenable to appeasement and inclined to deliver favours in return; moreover, it does not recognise acquisition and arrogation of physical possessions as a goal of spiritual pursuit. Religion of the Upaniṣads, on the other hand, holds that durable happiness is obtained only by living the life in conformity with the principle of Ātmā. An action that is in conformity with this principle is known as puṇya karma and the opposite as pāpa karma. When a puṇya karma is done, the doer feels contented and enriched, since it resonates well with his inherent essence which is SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA. On the other hand, when a pāpa karma is done, the doer is upset internally as it is repugnant to his very essence. This contradiction between the inner essence and the outer expression throws him into a chaos which diminishes his strength and culminates in his total ruin. In the social front, when pāpa karmas become rampant threatening the peace and well-being of the society, the ultimate ruling principle, SAT-CHIT-ĀNANDA, intervenes by churning out sufficient opposite forces to contain the adverse impacts and to finally assert itself. This is what Gīta says ‘saṃbhavāmi yuge yuge’ (4.8). Pāpa karmas are like obstructions to natural flow of water in a river; when they reach an intolerable level, water musters sufficient force and thrashes away all the obstructions with a violent sweep.
All self-centred pursuits for physical yields will end up in retaliations and entanglements. Only by abiding with the principle of Ātmā that one can secure hassle-free, durable happiness. We should therefore get enlightened about that principle. That is why Upaniṣads say that only by knowing the Ātmā one can attain bliss. Gīta prescribes this knowing as the only one goal deserving to be pursued, not too many, as would be the case with physical benefits (Gīta 2.41 to 2.44).

Everybody knows that we are not isolated beings here; we are part of a magnificent whole. We consist of all that is here; we together constitute the whole. Therefore, our happiness is the happiness of the whole; we have no separate happiness. As such, we have to work for the happiness of the whole; our happiness is involved in that happiness. All our actions should comply with this understanding. This is the practical implication of being in conformity with the principle of Ātmā.

We have already seen that ‘knowing’ Ātmā, according to Upaniṣads, is not simply understanding; it is but experiencing also. Then, the question is how to experience it. Actually we are always experiencing Ātmā; but we don’t recognise that fact. We enjoy pudding, laddu, etc. Sugar is the main constituent in them; without sugar there is no pudding and no laddu. Because of ignorance of this truth we don’t recognise that we are enjoying the sweetness of sugar. We simply say, “O, the pudding is good” or “laddu is good”. We don’t say that we have known the sweetness of sugar. Experiencing sugar is achieved by recognising its presence and consciously feeling it. Like this, experiencing Ātmā is achieved by recognising it in everything and consciously feeling it. This state of conscious feeling is achieved by meditation.

Having already known what Ātmā is, we are now concerned with meditation. It is really the lone spiritual practice under the Religion of Upaniṣads, apart from gaining simple knowledge about Ātmā. We shall see here how it can be done; this is only a model, not an inviolable prescription.

In a peaceful place and time, sit erect on a firm seat with the legs folded and hands placed on the thighs. The intention is to sit in a very comfortable posture. Close the eyes; concentrate on the upper tip of the nose between eye-brows; slowly move the attention backwards horizontally to touch the cross line that passes through the head at level with the ears. It is approximately at this point the Thalamus or the Heart which is the centre of consciousness within the body, is situated. Thalamus has two halves of bulb-shaped masses, each half having a length of about 3 cm. Praśna says that to this Heart, 101 main nerves are connected, out of which one projects upward. Each of these 101 nerves branches into 7.2 million secondary and tertiary nerves. Heart is the centre of consciousness, the light of Ātmā; from the Heart consciousness spreads to all parts of the body through nerves. Concentrate attention on the Heart and feel the flow of consciousness from the Heart to all parts of the body, like water from a perennial spring. Contemplate that every cell of the body is filled with the splendour of pure consciousness and that the whole body is drenched in it. Feel yourself as being inundated with that splendour. Remain in this position as long as possible; it will refresh you with new energy. By constant practice, you will feel like being in that splendour constantly. While being in that position you will have no more prayers to be made to any external agent; for, at this state, there is no ‘another’ to pray to. Your prayers will therefore be converted into wills. You may will anything to be done.

What we saw here is only a beginning. Constant practice will stabilise you in the splendour of consciousness. This is the highest goal of the Religion of Upaniṣads; such identification with Ātmā makes one immortal. Though the instances of reaching that goal are very rare, we should not abstain or discontinue. Any effort, however small it may be, will be helpful in bringing about inner enrichment to a proportionate level; it takes us closer and closer to the ultimate principle. Moreover, such efforts never produce any opposite effect; there is also nothing to lose by discontinuance (Gīta 2.40).

What we have seen above is the two facets of spiritual enlightenment, social and individual. That means, spirituality guides man to live a meaningful and ideal social life, on the one hand, and on the other, it enriches him to attain to the highest state of being.

Transformation of prayers into wills is exemplified by the Peace Invocations (Śānti Mantras) of Upaniṣads; no Deva or Lord is addressed therein for securing anything. The only exception is the Upaniṣads under Atharva Veda, namely Praśna, Muṇḍaka and Māṇḍūkya; note that Atharva is a later compilation. Śānti Mantras appear in the beginning and end of the Upaniṣads. The same Śānti Mantra appears in all the Upaniṣads under a particular Veda. Since Yajerveda has two branches, namely the Kṛṣṇa and Śukla Yajurvedas, separate Śānti Mantras are used in each of them. Thus there are five important Śānti Mantras; we shall have a look at them all.

Let us first see the Śānti Mantra of Aitareya Upaniṣad, the only Principal Upaniṣad under Ṛgveda.

ॐ वाङ्मे मनसि प्रतिष्ठिता | मनो मे वाचि प्रतिष्ठितम् | आविराविर्म एधि | वेदस्य म आणीस्थः| श्रुतं मे मा प्रहासीरनेनाधीतेनाहोरात्रान् संदधामि | ऋतं वदिष्यामि सत्यं वदिष्यामि | तन्मामवतु तद्वक्तारमवतु | अवतु मां अवतु वक्तारं अवतु वक्तारम् ||

ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः

vāṅme manasi pratiṣṭhitā; mano me vāci pratiṣṭhitaṃ; āvirāvirma edhi; vedasya ma
āṇīsthaḥ; śrutaṃ me mā prahāsīranenādhītenāhorātrān saṃdadhāmi; ṛtaṃ vadiṣyāmi satyaṃ vadiṣyāmi; tanmāmavatu tadvaktāramavatu; avatu māṃ avatu vaktāraṃ avatu vaktāram.

om śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ

Word Meaning: vāk- speech (utterance); me- my; manasi- in mind; pratiṣṭhitā- established; manaḥ- mind; vāci- in speech; pratiṣṭhitaṃ- established; āvis- evident, manifest; āvirāvis- more and more evident; ma- to me; edhi- enlarged, more clarified or apparent; vedasya- of Veda, of learning; ma- to me, my; āṇī- instruments, means, agents; sthaḥ- (you two) are; śrutaṃ- whatever learned; me- to me; mā- not; prahāsīḥ- be lost; anenādhītena- by that learning; ahorātrān- day and night; saṃdadhāmi- I shall unite; ṛtaṃ- SAT, the ruling principle of the world; vadiṣyāmi – I shall speak of; satyaṃ Satyam; tat- that; mām- me; avatu- may protect; vaktāram- the expounder, teacher; avatu māṃ – may I be protected; avatu vaktāraṃ – may the teacher be protected.
śāntiḥ- peace, calmness.

Mantra Meaning: My speech (utterance) is established in my mind; my mind is established in my speech. (May everything) be more and more evident and clarified to me. (O, speech and mind), you two are my instruments for learning. May what I have learnt be never lost. I shall unite day and night by that learning. I shall speak of SAT and Satyam; May that protect me and the teacher. May I be protected; may the teacher be protected.

The Mantra states that the mind and the speech are established in each other. What one speaks is what there is in his mind; what there is in one’s mind is what he learned by repeated recitation (by speech). This is the implication of the statement. It is obvious here that mind and speech are the instruments of learning. It is through them that one acquires correct and clarified knowledge. The prayer seeks that the acquired knowledge is never lost. The phrase ‘uniting day and night by the learning’ implies perseverance and constant effort throughout day and night. Ṛtaṃ is SAT which indicates Ātmā, the ruling principle of the universe; Satyam indicates, as we know, Brahma. ‘I shall speak of Ṛtaṃ and Satyam’ means ‘I shall study about Ātmā and Brahma’. ‘May that protect’ implies ‘may such study’ protect. Upaniṣads repeatedly declare that knowing Ātmā and Brahma makes one immortal. This declaration is relied in this Mantra.

Śānti is peace or calmness of mind obtained by alleviation of miseries; the word is repeated three times aiming to alleviate all the three kinds of miseries affecting humans.

The next Mantra is seen in Upaniṣads belonging to Śukla Yajurveda; Īśa and Bṛhadāraṇyaka are the two Principal Upaniṣads which use this Mantra.

ॐ पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदं पूर्णात्पूर्णमुदच्यते | पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पूर्णमेवावशिष्यते||

ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः

om pūrṇamadaḥ pūrṇamidaṃ pūrṇātpūrṇamudacyate; pūrṇasya pūrṇamādāya pūrṇamevāvaśiṣyate.

om śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ

Word Meaning: pūrṇam- Pūrṇam, that which is full, complete, absolute, saturated, whole, ultimate; adaḥ- that; idaṃ- this; pūrṇāt- from Pūrṇam; udacyate- emitted out; pūrṇasya- to the Pūrṇam; ādāya- having taken, having merged; pūrṇameva- Pūrṇam alone; avaśiṣyate- be left out, remains.

Mantra Meaning: That is Pūrṇam, this is Pūrṇam. Pūrṇam emerges from Pūrṇam. Pūrṇam on having merged to Pūrṇam, remains as Pūrṇam alone.

This Mantra, though short in size, actually presents one of the important basic tenets of Upaniṣadic philosophy. Upaniṣads say that this universe emerged from the ultimate principle, Ātmā and that it will finally merge into Ātmā. In other words, the universe is only an expression of Ātmā. It is well settled that Ātmā is absolute, ultimate and the whole; that means it is Pūrṇam. The words ‘that’ and ‘this’ in the Mantra indicate worldly objects there and here or far and near. All worldly objects are said to be body parts of Ātmā; they are manifestations of Ātmā. They are pervaded by Ātmā; they are actually Ātmā itself appearing in those forms. So, both are Pūrṇam; ‘that’ and ‘this’ are Pūrṇam. They emerged from Ātmā, the Pūrṇam; from Pūrṇam, only Pūrṇam can come out. So, it is said: ‘pūrṇāt pūrṇam udacyate’. What happens if all these merge into Ātmā? It will remain as such, as Pūrṇam only. Hence the Mantra declaration, “pūrṇasya pūrṇamādāya pūrṇamevāvaśiṣyate” (Pūrṇam on having merged to Pūrṇam, remains as Pūrṇam alone).
Now we go to the next Mantra which is seen in Upaniṣads belonging to Samaveda (Kena and Chāndogya). This Mantra is an expression of an earnest wish to become one with Brahma.

ॐ आप्यायन्तु ममाङ्गानि वाक्प्राणश्चक्षुःश्रोत्रमथो बलमिन्द्रियाणि च सर्वाणि।

सर्वं ब्रह्मोपनिषदं माऽहं ब्रह्म निराकुर्यां मा मा ब्रह्म निराकरोद् अनिराकरणमस्तु अनिराकरणं मेऽस्तु। तदात्मनि निरते य उपनिषत्सु धर्मास्ते मयि सन्तु ते मयि सन्तु।

ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः॥

Oṃ āpyāyantu mamāṅgāni vākprāṇaścakṣuḥ śrotramatho balamindriyāṇi ca sarvāṇi;

sarvam brahmaupaniṣadam mā’haṃ brahma nirākuryāṃ mā mā brahma nirākarodanirākaraṇamastvanirākaraṇam me’stu. tadātmani nirate ya upaniṣatsu dharmāste mayi santu te mayi santu.

oṃ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ.

Word Meaning: āpyāyantu- may be(come) strong, powerful; mama- my; aṅgāni- body parts; vāk- speech; prāṇa- breath; cakṣuḥ- eyes; śrotram- ears; athaḥ- and, further; balam-stamina; indriyāṇi- senses; ca- and; sarvāṇi- all; sarvam- all this; brahma- Brahma; upaniṣadam- declared in the Upaniṣads; ma- not; aham- I; nirākaroti- negate, separate off; mā’haṃ brahma nirākuryāṃ – may I not negate Brahma; mā mā brahma nirākarot – may Brahma not separate me off; anirākaraṇam- non-negation; astu- may there be; me- to me; tat- that; ātmani- within; nirate- attached, linger; ya- ye- which; upaniṣatsu- in Upaniṣads; dharmaḥ- ordinances, principles; te- they; mayi- in me; santu- may there be.

Mantra Meaning: May my body parts be strong; may my speech, breath, eyes, ears, stamina and all senses be powerful. All this (present here) is Brahma declared in the Upaniṣads. May I not negate (defy) Brahma; may Brahma not negate me. May there be non-negation; may there be non-negation to me; may that (non-negation) linger within (me). May the ordinances of Upaniṣads be always present in me.

The first yearning in this Mantra is for a strong body; this is because, without a strong and healthy body, sustained pursuit of the ultimate knowledge is not feasible. The second yearning is that there may not be any mutual negation of Brahma and the current seeker. This implies his earnest desire to be one with Brahma; he wants that this desire must constantly reverberate within him. Finally, he wants to bear in mind all the ordinances of the Upaniṣads; for, these ordinances are leading lights in the pursuit of spiritual realisation.

We shall now see the Mantra that is found in Upaniṣads of Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda. It expresses a wish jointly made by the disciple and the master. They want the process of learning and teaching to be a smooth one without room for any prejudices. See the Mantra below:

ॐ सह नाववतु | सह नौ भुनक्तु | सह वीर्यं करवावहै | तेजस्विनावधीतमस्तु मा विद्विषावहै॥
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः॥

Oṃ saha nāvavatu; saha nau bhunaktu; saha vīryaṃ karavāvahai; tejasvi nāvadhītamastu mā vidviṣāvahai.

Om śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ.

Word Meaning: saha- together; nāvavatu – nau + avatu; nau- both of us; avatu- may be impelled, promoted, protected; bhunaktu- may be hungry; vīryaṃ- energy; karavāvahai- may we utilise; tejasvi- brilliant; adhītam- learning; astu- may it be; mā- not; vidviṣāvahai- may we cause to dislike each other.

Mantra Meaning: May both of us be impelled together; may we be hungry together. May we utilise our energy together. May our learning be brilliant; may we both not cause any dislike to each other.

The teacher and the student pray for being motivated together and for being hungry together. Motivation is for study; hunger is for imparting/receiving knowledge. To achieve this goal, they have to utilise their energy together. Such united effort is essential to ensure a brilliant output. Finally, the process of learning should not result in mutual dislike. There is a possibility of dislike in the absence of simultaneous inspiration and joint effort; that justifies the beginning part of the Mantra.

The last of the popular Śānti Mantras in the Upaniṣads is given below; it is found in Upaniṣads belonging to Atharva Veda. This Mantra is different from those given above, in that the prayers here are directed to various Devas.

ॐ भद्रं कर्णेभिः श्रुणुयाम देवाः भद्रं पश्येमाक्षभिर्यजत्राः|
स्थिरैरङ्गैस्तुष्टुवांसस्तनूभिः व्यशेम देवहितं यदायुः।
स्वस्ति न इन्द्रो वृद्धश्रवाः स्वस्ति नः पूषा विश्ववेदाः।
स्वस्ति नस्तार्क्ष्यो अरिष्टनेमिः स्वस्ति नो बृहस्पतिर्दधातु |
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः॥

auṃ bhadraṃ karṇebhiḥ śruṇuyāma devāḥ bhadraṃ paśyemākṣabhiryajatrāḥ;
sthirairaṅgaistuṣṭuvāṃsastanūbhiḥ vyaśema devahitam yadāyuḥ;
svasti na indro vṛddhaśravāḥ svasti naḥ pūṣā viśvavedāḥ;
svasti nastārkṣyo ariṣṭanemiḥ svasti no bṛhaspatirdadhātu.
auṃ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ śāntiḥ.

Word Meaning: bhadraṃ- auspicious, excellent; karṇebhiḥ- by ears; śruṇuyāma- may we hear; devāḥ- Devas; paśyema- may we see; akṣabhiḥ- by the eyes; yajatrāḥ- worshipful ones; sthirairaṅgaiḥ- (sthiraiḥ + aṅgaiḥ) with determined mind; tuṣṭuvāṃsastanūbhiḥ- with a satisfied or healthy body; vyaśema- spend, consume; devahitam- allotted or assigned by Devas; yadāyuḥ- life as (alloted); svasti- blessing, prosperity; naḥ- to us; indraḥ- Indra; vṛddhaśravāḥ- ancient glory; pūṣā- Pūṣa (the great nourisher); viśvavedāḥ- all-knowing; tārkṣyaḥ- Garuda; ariṣṭanemiḥ- one who wards off evils; bṛhaspatiḥ- Bṛhaspati (Lord of prayer); dadhātu- bestow.

Mantra Meaning: O Devas, may we hear the auspicious with our ears. O worshipful ones, may we see the auspicious with our eyes. May we spend our life time allotted by Devas, with determined mind and healthy body. May Indra, the ancient glory and Pūṣa the all-knowing, Garuda, the one who wards of evils, and Bṛhaspati bestow blessings on us.

Finally, we shall look into a comment made by some readers regarding the oldness of Upaniṣads mentioned in the introduction to this series. They objected to specifying the period of the ten most ancient Upaniṣads to be between 1500 BC and 600 BC. Their reason was that Upaniṣads are divine (apauruṣeya) and their age cannot be so specified. In this regard, it is to be clarified that all knowledge is apauruṣeya; even the simple arithmetic “2 + 2 = 4” is so. This is because such knowledge is not the invention of any particular individual; it is only a discovery by some person at some point of time. The time of such discovery is what we give as the date of that piece of knowledge. It may be seen that each sukta in the Veda Samhita is known in the name of some renowned Sage. Upaniṣads also are mostly presented as expounded by some Ṛsis. As such, there is nothing wrong in mentioning the period of revelation of the Upaniṣads. Dispute exists only in respect of the correctness of the period assigned.

It is clear from the above facts that nobody has any proprietary or tenancy right over any knowledge. Spiritual knowledge, like any other knowledge, is a universal property and every person has the right of access to and utilisation of that property. Let everybody realise this fact and come forward to get enriched in exercise of that right. It is everybody’s right and duty to acquire knowledge and rise up to the ultimate awakening. For, peaceful co-existence demands it.

Readers can contact the author by email at: karthiksreedhar@gmail.com

Prior articles in this series:

The Science of the Upanishads – Introduction
The Science of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
The Science of Chandogya Upanishad
The Science of Ishavasya Upanishad
The Science of Katha Upanishad
The Science of Kena Upanishad
The Science of Mandukya Upanishad
The Science of Mundaka Upanishad
The Science of Prashna Upanishad
The Science of Taittiriya Upanishad
The Science of Aitareya Upanishad
The Science of Shvetashvatara Upanishad
The Science of Upanishads – Conclusion

Is there any airport in the world which closes its runway and reschedules flight operations for a centuries-old temple procession to pass?

The international airport in Kerala’s capital may be the only one of its kind which has been stopping flight operations and rearranging flight schedules twice every year for several decades as part of the annual festivals of the famed Sree Padmanabhaswamy Temple here.

The flight operations to and from the airport here would come to a halt for five hours when “Aarattu,” the ritual bath procession of temple idols, passes through its runway on the final day of the 10-day ‘Painkuni’ and ‘Alpassi” festivals (celebrated during the Tamil months of Painkuni and Alpassi months respectively) of the shrine.

The airport issues a NOTAM (Notice to Airmen), a notice containing information concerning the establishment, condition or change in any facility, service or procedure, among others, in airspace management, in this regard a week ahead of the procession, airport sources here said.

Armed CISF personnel stand guard on both sides of the runway when the idols pass to take a ritualistic bath in the nearby Shangumugham beach crossing the airport premises.

After the ‘holy bath’, the procession goes back to the temple through the same route in the night with an escort of people carrying burning ‘theevettis’ (traditional fire lamps).

As this year’s ‘Aarattu’ procession, marking the culmination of the ongoing ‘Alpassi’ festival at the Lord Padmanabha Temple, would be held Saturday evening, flight operations at the airport were scheduled to be canceled between 4 and 9pm, airport authorities said.

According to the temple management, the procession moves through the airport runway as the area is part of the traditional ‘aarattu route’ through which it has been passing for several centuries to reach the beach.

The procession used to pass through the same route even before the airport was established in the year 1932, they said.

The temple issues special passes to participants in the ‘aarattu’ as it passes through the high security airport area, they added.

Thiruvananthapuram airport director George G Tharakan said NOTAM is usually issued a week before the procession date, so that flight operators worldwide are aware of the need to change the schedule.

“I do not think, such a practise is followed anywhere in the world…The runway will be closed completely and all flight operations, both domestic and international, will be halted for five hours. It is time when modernity meets tradition,” he told PTI.

Detailing the security arrangements, the director said, people are allowed inside during the procession based on the special passes issued by the temple management.

“They give us a list of participants, to whom they issue passes. Only such persons are permitted inside airport premises. Strict security checks, both by CISF and Kerala police personnel will be carried out at the entrance. CISF personnel guard the runway when the procession passes,” he said.

Temple authorities would be requested to clear the airport premises completely by 8.45pm after the procession returns and the NOTAM would be withdrawn and flight operations would resume by 9pm, Tharakan added.

The procession carrying temple idols on decorated vehicles escorted by priests, members of the erstwhile Travancore Royal family, caparisoned elephants, police band and armed and mounted police personnel besides large number of devotees, is a grand spectacle for onlookers.

The present head of Travancore Royal family, Moolam Tirunal Rama Varma would lead the procession carrying the ceremonial sword and wearing the traditional green cap, the royal symbols.

Source: manoramaonline.com

Nangali Venkatapura, a tiny village in Mulabagilu taluk in Kolar district of Karnataka that is home to just around 35 families, is witnessing what has not happened in recent history, at least in the last eight centuries or so.

In times when we can’t take pride in the way we treat our heritage, this village (which was once at the limit of the Hoysala Kingdom) just a little over a 100 kilometres away from silicon city, has just laid the foundation for the largest and the grandest Hoysala temple ever.

Yes, history is set to be created or rather repeated but not replicated as the proposed Kalyana Venkateshwara temple in Nangali, is aimed at being an amalgamation of the essence of Hoysala architectural excellence, yet rise as an entirely original creation.

The project is the brainchild of Aravind Reddy, who is the secretary and treasurer of the Shree Kalyana Venkateshwara Hoysala Art Foundation. “If the Hoysalas were to build a temple now, they would definitely make it bigger, better and unique like all the temples they built. That is all we are trying to do,” said Aravind Reddy, who is steering the initiative.

So the idea has now set in motion work to manifest a temple in Hoysala style architecture, which is almost forgotten, has no texts to back it, or substantial erudition in the country to revive it. It is to say the least, a monumental tribute to the grand style of architecture that for over seven centuries lay dormant.

It all began 10 years ago with one man’s vision to build a small temple as an offering to his village that had none. Aravind Reddy’s father, Ramalinga Reddy, who is president of the Shree Kalyana Venkateshwara Hoysala Art Foundation and a retired educationist, wished to give back to his village, and so he along with his brother-in-law Keshav Reddy, decided to contribute their own money and build a temple.

The inclination to build a temple was natural to the two as they hail from families that have gifted the city of Bengaluru many temples in the past. While Aravind Reddy’s maternal great-grandfather had travelled to Rajasthan 90 years ago to get work done for a temple he built in Domlur in Bengaluru, his maternal grandfather was involved in the construction of the Muneshwara and Lakshmi Narayana temple inside the Vidhan Soudha premises, while the Suryanarayana temple built by their family in Bengaluru is set to complete three decades.

The thought then was to pool in funds to the tune of Rs 10 lakh and build a small temple on one of their lands in the village. “It was just a thought, on a very small scale. I had five acres of land in my share, and we were not using it. So we thought we would keep one acre and build a temple for the village on the rest of the land,” says Aravind Reddy as he takes us on the journey of this magnum opus in the making. A trained artist, himself, specialised in Mysore paintings, Reddy was determined that the temple, no matter how small, must be aesthetically appealing and a reflection of Hoysala architectural heritage.

Thanks to his close association with people from the Karnataka Chitrakala Parishad, and his frequent visits to the artisan’s training school at Jogaraoddi that had brought him in touch with expert sculptors like Ashok Gudigar, Ganesh L Bhatt and the likes, there were no two thoughts about reviving the Hoysala style of architecture through the temple. “When my father brought up the idea of building a temple, I thought even if we build it on a small scale, why not do it in the way of our own heritage the Hoysala style,” says Aravind Reddy.

It was this desire that triggered the urge to revive the architectural heritage. “The heritage architecture is long forgotten. It has been almost 800 years – eight centuries since the royal patronage, as it ended with the Hoysala Kingdom,” he explains. “There are artists who do that kind of work, but it ends up being an artwork on someone’s wall or a showpiece somewhere. But why not let such artistic excellence manifest into a temple, I thought”. It was this little idea born 10 years ago that led him to begin the groundwork for it – from the sculptors to the stone, everything had to be sorted.

Sculptors

Apart from the experts on board and their teams, as far as young sculptors are concerned, Reddy’s main concern was originality. And being an artist himself, this was one sphere where he clearly knew what he wanted and so started looking for people who had been doing work around the Hoysalas. Though there are many who have created replicas of Hoysala work, Reddy’s discontent was because, in his own words, “No one thought of how to create something new in the Hoysala style of architecture. Most people go to Belur or Halebeedu, click pictures and then reproduce it. But with reproduction, even the best can only try and recreate the original excellence,” he muses.

Also, given that it would require the sculptors to go almost 800 years back in time, which is no mean task, Reddy began his hunt for sculptors. “In cities, it is more about how much a piece of work can fetch, but fortunately we found sculptors in places like Puri Jagannath who are still pursuing the traditional way of doing things. Commercialisation hasn’t touched them yet, and that gave us hope that we can indeed revive the heritage and regain the class,” explains Reddy, who is positive about roping in such artists to train in the Hoysala tradition and groom them to work on the temple. At present a team of sculptors from Karkala headed by Gunawantheshwara Bhat, a student of Ganesh L Bhat, is working on the initial pieces.

As far as the overall monitoring is concerned, it will be handled by Shankar Sthapathi, an eminent sthapathi trained and belonging to the lineage of Tamil Sthapathis, who although hailing from an entirely different school of architecture is pleased to be on this venture.

Stone

Now that the ‘who’ was partially answered, it was the ‘what’, the material, the stone that had to be sourced. Unlike temple structures today which are all built in granite and most often in distasteful cement or concrete, Hoysala temples were built in soapstone. The search for soapstone led them to quarries in Heggadevanakote in Mysore, where they found some quantity of the stone required. Since private miners having exhausted most of the stone available there with over half a century of mining for export, they had to then approach the government for stone available on government land. “We were hopeful that the government would cooperate since it is for a project of this nature, by which we would bring back Karnataka’s sculpture ‘shilpakale’, and it did,” says an elated Reddy.

Design

With the site, stone and the sculptors sorted, it was like the kitchen was set, the ingredients all sourced and the cooks too on board. All that was now needed was a master chef, the architect, who could actually translate Reddy’s vision into reality. “Even at this stage the plan was for a small temple, and since we had not actually gone to the ground ever since we started out on the project in May 2009, we began showing the plot to vastu experts who kept moving the plot from one place to another. What was originally planned on a half acre plot, now expanded to a two-acre ground,” says Reddy about the first major change. It was then that other members of the Reddy community of Bengaluru, also relatives of Aravind Reddy, who were also building temples in Bellandur and Munnekolal in the city on a much bigger budget, came on board to build the Hoysala style temple. With this, the scale of the project grew, and by 2009 the budget hit Rs 20 crore. The model they had in mind was the Arasikere Chandramaulishwara temple.

A core team was already being put in place with historian and scholar on Belur Dr Srivatsa Vati also joining. It was through him that Reddy met Yeshaswini Sharma of Esthetique Architects, who was then studying the details of Chennakeshava Temple at Belur. When queried if she could design a Hoysala temple, she said she couldn’t, but led the team to her guide Professor Adam Hardy, from Cardiff University, who has over four decades of scholarship in Hoysala architecture.

The Meeting that Changed It All

Professor of Asian Architecture at Welsh School of Architecture at Cardiff University, Adam Hardy was in India for a study, when Aravind Reddy and Dr Vati fixed a meeting with him in Delhi. This was in September 2009. Reddy reminisces his first meeting was unforgettable. “A man of his kind of erudition and expertise had no airs about any of it. The first words he uttered when we met were ‘before I talk let me show you my work’. He sat down, pulled out a book, a pen and started drawing. When I saw him draw I knew we have found our architect,” he says, the pride still glistening in his eyes.

Hardy was more than happy to be on board the project too, as “this will be a lifetime achievement for him also. He has put in a lot of efforts over the past so many decades. And sadly there is no one to ask for it especially in India,” he muses.

That is how the architect, the final and the key element, was also finally in place. But this meeting was to be the turning point of the project, as the scale, the nature and everything about the project just took a mammoth leap.

“Prof Hardy is truly a godsend” he says. Reddy explained to him that the temple they had in mind was a small one modelled on Arasikere and asked him if he could give them a drawing of the temple. Hardy who had studied the Hoysala temples for his doctoral thesis, agreed, saying it was but a one-day job.

This was no small task given that a search for temple drawings at the ASI had gotten him just one drawing, and when he queried, he was told that they “only make drawings of structures that fall off and are to be repaired. Where do we go sit and study the architecture of temples?” But Prof Hardy gave him not just one or two, but all fifty.

That was not it. After having discussed the temple plan which was still maintained at the ‘2 acre-20 crore’ scale, Prof Hardy remarked that the Arasikere temple was one of the very many and a very small display of the architectural craftsmanship, abilities and excellence of the Hoysalas who had proved them in those days itself with the Belur, Halebeedu and the other 50-odd temples which were all different from each other and featured one unique element that distinguished it from the rest.

“So, Mr Reddy think about this. Given the age in which we are living, being so technologically advanced, if the finances are not an issue, why not do something better than what has already been done?” Prof Hardy asked. He was willing to design, and confident about the idea as he had studied all 52 temples and was well versed with the specialities of all those temples.

It was a big question. “Think about it. I am ready to sketch. Are you ready to make it happen – think about it, he said” muses Reddy.

What that meant was that it had to be bigger and grander than Belur. And that was no mean task.

At the end of the meeting, Reddy said he would get back to Prof Hardy, and along with Dr Vati headed to the Akshardham temple. A day-long tour of the temple and a detailed view of its premises and the work that had gone into it seemed to have left a mark in Reddy’s mind. Before they left the city, he had made up his mind. “I decided that we will go for it. Even Dr Vati was shocked and asked me if I was serious” he laughs. “The meeting with Prof Hardy happened at 11 am, and by 5 pm that evening everything had changed. The temple would be now what it would be if the Hoysalas built another one now.

But would it be possible? “Yes. It is possible. Having seen the Akshardham temple, I was determined. The magnitude, the budget, the artwork, everything is possible. We decided we will make it happen. Maybe we will go to the public for the funds, but this is definitely possible” says a determined Reddy.

The project was now a massive one with a budget that would definitely cross over Rs 300 to 400 crore and stand on a land spanning around 8 acres.

What would the Hoysalas have done next if they had built another great royal temple after Belur and Halebeedu? The answer to this question is the thought dictating the design of the temple. The task is to surpass the largest Hoysala works in scale and magnificence.

Hoysala temples belong to the school of south Indian temple architecture called ‘Karnata Dravida’, which began around the seventh and eighth centuries under the early Chalukyas and continued to grow under the Rashtrakutas and the later Chalukyas, which is around late tenth to twelfth centuries. The Hoysala temple architecture is a late development of this tradition and hence Prof Hardy choses to use the term ‘late Karnata Dravida’.

Karnata Dravida Tradition

The Karnata Dravida tradition in contrast to the Tamil Dravida tradition, which is the temple architecture of Tamil Nadu and continues till date, died out in the fourteenth century itself. Which is why, despite all the regional pride and its manifestation evoked in the form of souvenirs and the like, there has been no new Hoysala temple since the fourteenth century as there has been no Karnata Dravida sthapathi or any shastra from this tradition that can be referred to. So the only form of learning this tradition is by studying the temples that exist. And this is precisely what Prof Hardy has been doing for decades.

Also to be kept in mind is that this is not one that can be solely designed by the architect’s whims or his knowledge. The patron’s vision, and more importantly, the diktats or the prescriptions of the agamikas or the members of the agama (traditional school of thought of Hindu spiritual practice) along with the architect’s erudition of the Hoysala architectural works are the ones that are designing the temple which is in Hardy’s words a ‘swayambhu’.

As Yeshaswini Sharma, whose firm Esthetique Architects is collaborating on the project explains, “Adam calls it swayambhu as the temple is designing itself, it is manifesting itself. No design is being imposed on it. It is rather being channelled and let create itself”.

And the most unique aspect is that the temple which is touted as the next in the tradition is also set to bring in or accommodate all the unique aspects of each of the temples that have been built so far.

Initial Temple Plan

As Sharma explains, in terms of the overall structure, the main temple will have a stellate construction (star shaped) and the biggest one till date amongst the Hoysala temples is the one in Belur which is a 16 point one. “But the client wanted the Vishnu’s Chaturvimshati depicted, i.e. the 24 forms of Vishnu, and Bhadra projections like the ones in Belur, which is how Adam came up with a 24-point star structure.”

The other requirements were that the bhadra projections, which are the central relieved or projected part of the side of the body of the vimana (the whole shrine structure from the base to the finial) were to be like the ones in Belur and the panels of the mantapa, as Reddy envisions should sport the dashavatara (10 incarnations of Vishnu). The temple is also to have a rangamantapa, the likes of the one in Arasikere, which is a stellate structure but a bigger one, with a dome whose diameter is 40 feet.

“So the design follows all this. When it comes to design, the theme can inform, the intention can inform – for e.g our client wants a Kalyana Venkateshwara temple, which itself lays down certain rules for us. It is a Venkateshwara temple and it is informed by the Vaikhanasa agama (the school of thought associated with the rituals at the Tirupati Balaji temple), unlike the other Hoysala temples which are being handled by the Pancharatra agama. These agamikas have certain requirements and set rules about how certain aspects of the temple should be, and we have to adhere to that,” explains Sharma, adding that all these factors are ensuring that the temple is in reality manifesting itself.

“The challenge has been to enable the temple to emerge out of the architectural principles by which the mediaeval tradition developed. Those, together with the iconographic requirements – the images of the gods and their placement – generated the temple form in a way that seemed naturally inevitable. So, when we say it’s not a copy of a Hoysala temple, that’s not because of forcing it to be different for the sake of ‘originality’. The difference comes about naturally, growing out of the logic of the tradition,” says Prof Hardy.

With a garbagriha of 60 feet, which with the bhadra of 90 feet in width, the temple’s mantapa will measure 120 feet by 120 feet. “That apart we are trying to see how we can be innovative with light and ventilation. Also we have additional issues to handle, given the times we live in. Probably when the Hoysalas built their temples, they didn’t or didn’t have to think of disabled-access, but we are. Since it is a public project with public money funding it, we cannot ignore any such aspects,” explains Sharma.

Architectural Challenges

Given the scale, the challenges too are not few. For instance, technically the beam lengths are very long, more than 17 feet while the longest till date is the one in Belur which measures around 10-12 feet. “That kind of length is not available in any of the quarries, moreover that kind of length means we can’t cast it in soapstone. So for this median beams we need a granite core and clad soapstone on it, which means we need good structural expertise, due diligence etc,” explains Sharma elaborating on the challenges. The vimanashikhara is 109 feet tall, which means the walls of the garbagriha will be carrying so much dead weight. Also, it is a stellate plan, which means we also have to ensure the angles don’t open up,” she adds. These are technical issues apart from which there are other logistical issues to be dealt with, which make the project a really long winded one, as there is no scope for compromise. Be it sourcing the stones or deciding where the sculptors will work, ferrying the sculpted portions, or the other legal issues that arise, the architectural magnum opus has many a tiny issues that are being dealt with as they come. And the biggest one is definitely is the moolah.

The Support

While erstwhile Hoysala temples had royal patronage, this one which would be of the people, for the people, and would now have to be funded by the people. And with a budget exceeding Rs 300 crore, going public was only natural.

The plot that the temple now stands on is atop a rock base with nothing for over 20 km, other than hill ranges as distant as the horizon. The sankalpa puja for the temple had been done in February even before the duo met Prof Hardy, after which Reddy’s cousin had suggested this new plot that was at an elevated spot and ideal for the temple. “The plot changed in February, we met Hardy in March, and so we thought why not make it really big,” muses Reddy adding that this was when they decided to go public.

The desire to include everyone on this mega project led them to go to the people. “Since everyone in Karnataka has pride and respect for Hoysala architecture, our heritage, we thought of including everyone in this venture. Which is when I remembered the example of Vallabhbhai Patel who collected one rupee from everyone to build the Somanath temple,” he reminisces. He added that his memories of having sent one brick with Rs 16 to Ayodhya also reminded him that there was definitely a way to go to the public for the funds. So, why not replicate the same in the south, we thought. Why not approach the RSS, the VHP and include everyone on this venture – everyone who takes pride in our cultural heritage?”

The team took six months to get back to Prof Hardy after which he began drawing for the temple. Year five is when the team had the first drawings in place and formed a committee. Earlier they had a small trust formed with the members of the Reddy family and other people from the village. The scale was now booming. The TTD came on board as the ritualistic advisors.

Political and governmental support too flowed in as and when there was a need for it. “When the drawings came, B S Yeddyurappa was the chief minister and we somehow managed to get in touch with him. He was very astonished to see the drawings and said that if some foreigner can make such drawings then it’s an insult if don’t see to it fruition. He said he was willing to give any support that was needed from the government,” said Reddy.

Even when Sadanand Gowda was the chief minister, Reddy said, the support was unconditional and had agreed to even preside over the shilanyasa programme, which he couldn’t make it to owing to some other issues. But VHP’s Ashok Singhal took his place and all presided over all the processes. “At that time, he said in his speech, ‘don’t worry , we are 4 crore VHP volunteers. Even if each one of us contributes Rs 100 each, Rs 400 crore is not an issue, you go ahead’. He gave me the courage, that push,” says a nostalgic Reddy.

When the matter came back to the family, for the foundation which would need over 6,000 stones, everyone thought it would be great if they could contribute stones. With Reddy’s sister setting the stone rolling, within the family itself they ended up contributing 50 stones. But since the need was for 6,000 stones, they decided to offer the opportunity to everyone. Anyone who wishes to contribute a stone to this marvel can do so for a mere Rs 15,000. And all those contribute stones were offered an opportunity to spend a day at the plot conducting rituals for the offering. “Most people who contributed were elated that they too had one stone in this mammoth temple, since the amount was not really big given all that we spend today. There were people who tears in their eyes” explains Reddy. And that is how the first stage of the foundation of the garbagriha or the main temple with 1,000 stones was completed.

Everyone in the village contributed too. The first person to give a donation of Rs 101 when the project took off was the oldest lady of the village who could barely walk. “And she managed to do that. Early in the morning she walked with this donation in her hand and she gave that – that is the sentiment – there are people like that who believe in it, and so not only will they see this project through but also ensure that they take care of it later. The community involvement is what makes the difference” says Sharma.

But plans are also on to take this to people throughout the state and beyond. The trust intends to collect Rs 108 from every house going door-to-door. A vehicle turned into a tableau with the look of a Hoysala temple will go visit every village in every taluk and ask people to pitch in to make this temple happen. The trust also intends to set up booths at every taluk level to coordinate this. A painting of KalyanaVenkateshwara made by BKS Verma especially for this purpose is being made into a card as a return souvenir for everyone who contributes. “ A proto design is being put in place and everything including payment gateways are being considered. The rath will take off from Mulabagilu and with one village a day, we will keep asking people from all over the country to contribute”explains Reddy of his colossal plans.

In this way, the stage has been set for history to repeat or rather reinstate itself. The aim is not to build yet another temple or a religious place of worship alone but to enable a revival of culture. “His intention is far nobler” muses Sharma. The idea is to recreate the temple as a resource centre, as they originally were. Centres of learning for art, culture, music, dance on the premises where young talent can be trained in a traditional setting is also on the cards and the rangamantapa in front of the temple for performing arts will see these artists trained here, perform. The dream is to involve the community and have a revival of sorts.

That we haven’t done, what we ideally should have for the upkeep of our cultural heritage, says a worried Reddy. “ The government has put few institutions in place, gives an award or two may be but where their skill can be really utilised we haven’t done what we should, which is why this effort; to try and do what the government hasn’t done for these arts and skills. In Karnataka especially we have done minimum. Which is why this this temple will also serve as a centre of excellence” says Reddy envisioning the plans in the pipeline.

“It’s a research and development project. We are documenting everything so that anytime anyone in the future wants to build a Hoysala temple this is a readymade resource,” says Sharma, whose excitement is evident when she says, “this is one-of-a kind project for us too as no matter how many projects we design we will never be creating another Hoysala temple in our lifetime”.

The project estimated to take over a decade, with the main temple prescribed to be completed in nine years had its shilavapana programme, or the consecration of the first stone of the main temple recently.

The first piece of sculpted stone was also unveiled, which is part of the gajatala or the elephant base. Sculpted by sculptors from Karkala, it was then ferried to the site where the Maharaja of Mysore Yaduveer Krishnadatta Chamaraja Wadiyar consecrated the Upapitha, with the gajatala, in an elaborate ceremony on 14 June 2017.

The workers who had taken a break for a month after having worked non-stop for a year to complete the foundation for the Shilavapana programme are back to chip and carve the masterpiece from Vijayadasami.

One chip at a time, one stone at a time, the lost glory of the Hoysalas is being revived, revered and reinstated. More power to that, we say!

Source: swarajyamag.com